M. E. S. Satyajeet College of Pharmacy, Mehkar
The demand for natural dyes worldwide has grown, driven by an increasing consciousness of the therapeutic qualities inherent in natural dyes. Natural dyes are obtained from a number of sources including plants, insects, animals, and minerals. They have received attention because they are perceived as safer than synthetic colors, most of which have been banned since they are implicated in the possibility of causing allergy-like reactions or carcinogenicity. Interestingly, plant pigments among natural dyes contain a variegated set of medicinal properties. This review presents a detailed discussion of the types of dyes, with an emphasis on differences between natural and artificial counterparts and delving into their broad applications. The unpleasant effects of synthetic dyes are addressed, with an emphasis on the necessity for sustainable alternatives. The article also provides a collection of data on synonyms, biological sources, chemical components, and applications in naturally occurring plant dyes, with the objective of contributing to pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical product development. This detailed review integrates the world of natural dyes and culinary herbs, providing key insights into their medicinal and culinary value.
People have been in awe of the striking natural colors in plants and minerals since ancient times and used them to beautify. The recent popularity of natural dyes and colors for foods, medicine, and textiles is a response to an increased concern among people worldwide regarding the possibility of harm from artificial colors1. The increasing interest in products made from natural materials provides proof of this change in consumer attitudes. Colors exert tremendous power in everyday life, determining our impressions about all sorts of objects, from textiles to food products and drugs. This power is huge in determining people's decisions and tastes. The extensive use of colorants in industries like foods, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, and textiles intends to foster customer perception and acceptability. Colorants can be grouped into three main categories: inorganic, synthetic, and natural colors. Natural colors, which are obtained from plants, animals, and microbes, are becoming increasingly popular as the first choice. Synthetic colors, which are developed in laboratories, are not found naturally and take the form of chemical synthesis to develop the necessary organic chemicals. Inorganic colors, represented by minerals such as gold, silver, and titanium dioxide, may be naturally occurring or synthesized synthetically2. The modern upsurge in natural dyes' global demand is traceable to increased awareness of the beneficial attributes of these dyes. The strict limitations placed on some synthetic pigments, because they have a likelihood of promoting allergic reactions or carcinogenicity, further emphasize the transition to the natural alternatives. It is significant to note that plant colorants lead among the natural colors, providing a wide range of therapeutic advantages. This intersection of consumer consciousness and health factors is driving the comeback of natural colorants in several sectors3.
Types of dye:
Natural Dye:
. Natural dyes are naturally occurring chemical compounds from diverse sources such as plants (e.g., indigo and saffron), insects (e.g., cochineal beetles and lac scale insects), animals (e.g., specific species of mollusks or shellfish), and minerals (e.g., ferrous sulfate and clay). Importantly, natural dyes are collected without processing chemically. The major sources of natural dyes are vegetable dyes from plant materials like roots, berries, bark, leaves, and wood. Organic sources such as fungi and lichens also form part of the wide range of natural dyes4.
Synthetic Dye:
Synthetic dyes are synthesized from chemicals obtained from petroleum by products and minerals of earth. Most commonly called "coal tar dyes" because of their historical derivation from coal tar, these artificial dyes were first found in 1856. Artificial dyes are characterized by the properties of color retention for extended periods, increased brilliance, and low-cost production. Significantly, their cost of production is lower than that of natural dyes. Artificial dyes are also famous for the increased stability in that they show resistance to forces such as heat, light, and hydroxyl ion concentration. This durability renders synthetic dyes more resilient than natural dyes5.
Problems with the synthetic dye:
Several health problems have been traced to the synthetic dyes in cosmetics. The primary group of synthetic dyes, azo dyes, interfere with skin micro flora, liver cells, and intestinal microbes. These dyes have several carcinogenic, mutagenic, and genotoxic activities. Furthermore, these azo dyes give rise to a range of skin problems. Synthetic dyes are taken into consideration as xenobiotics which are more detrimental to environment. Among other things, 1, 4-diamino benzene, a chemical compound present in azo dye, leads to skin rashes, contact dermatitis, blindness, vomiting, and increased blood pressure. Most synthetic dyes are toxic and cause an unfavorable reaction on human skin5. Dyes like aniline are flammable which can lead to various dangerous effects. Heavy metals that are very dangerous to humans, such as lead and cadmium, can be present in some synthetic dyes. The textile industry is the largest contributor of colored waste water, according to research. A total of 20% of the dye applied to dye textile fibres is not absorbed and is carried in the waste water, hence a high percentage of pollution6. There are colours that are produced by utilizing toxic chemicals like heavy metals like arsenic, lead that can result in fatal disease7.
Figure 1: Classification of natural colorants8
Table 1. Scientific Classification of plants
Various Plants: Applications in Cosmetics, Culinary Delights, and Pharmaceutical Formulations for Medicinal and Beyond:
1. Turmeric:
Turmeric is extracted from the dried, as also the fresh rhizome of Curcuma longa Linn, which is a member of the family Zingiberaceae17-18. Turmeric contains volatile oil, such as oil- cineol, zingiberene, and sesquiterpenes, with various starch, resins, and curcuminoids19. The major active ingredient among curcuminoids is termed as "curcumin," which accounts for 50-60% of the constitution3. At present, over 235 compounds, mainly phenolic compounds and terpenoids, have been detected in turmeric. These compounds are diarylheptanoids and diarylpentanoids, phenylpropene, other phenolics, monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, triterpenoids, sterols, and certain alkaloid compounds. Curcuminoids, the yellow-colored polyphenolic compounds that are responsible for turmeric's activities, comprise 71.5% curcumin (curcumin I), 19.4% demethoxycurcumin (curcumin II), and 9.1% bisdemethoxycurcumin (curcumin III)20.
Figure 2: Curcumin 21
Uses:
Curcumin plays several roles as an anti-inflammatory, anticancer, hypolipidemic, antiseptic agent, expectorant, anti-rheumatic, anti-alzheimer, and anti-aging agent as well as an antioxidant. It has also proved to be used in the treatment of acne and psoriasis22. As an effective immune modulator, turmeric, which has been used as a home remedy for wound healing, is utilized as a coloring agent in many cosmetic preparations like ointments, lotions, and creams23-24. Turmeric possesses anti-microbial, anti-septic and anti-inflammatory functions25. Curcuma longa Linn of the family Zingiberaceae17-18 is derived for urmeric from the dried rhizome, as well as the fresh one. Turmeric is found to contain volatile oil, i.e., oil-cineol, zingiberene, and sesquiterpenes, in addition to starch, resins, and curcuminoids19. The main active ingredient among the curcuminoids is "curcumin," which is 50-60% of the composition3. To date, over 235 compounds, which are mainly phenolic compounds and terpenoids, have been found in turmeric. These consist of diarylheptanoids and diarylpentanoids, phenylpropene, other phenolic compounds, monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, triterpenoids, sterols, and certain alkaloid compounds. Curcuminoids, the yellow-colored polyphenolic compounds accounting for turmeric's activity, comprise primarily 71.5% curcumin (curcumin I), 19.4% demethoxycurcumin (curcumin II), and 9.1% bisdemethoxycurcumin (curcumin III)20.
Figure 2: Curcumin21
Uses:
Curcumin is all this and more: an antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, hypolipidemic, antiseptic agent, expectorant, anti-rheumatic, anti-alzheimer, and anti-aging agent. It has also been found effective in treating psoriasis and acne22. As a potent modulator of the immune system, turmeric, which was a time-honored home remedy for wound healing, is used as a coloring agent in some cosmetic products like ointments, lotions, and creams23-24. Turmeric possesses anti-microbial, anti-septic and anti-inflammatory properties25.
2. Henna:
It is made up of fresh as well as dried leaves of the plant Lawsonia inermis Lam., family Lythraceae26-27. The major active compound of the leaf is lawsone (0.5-1.0%). Gallic acid (5-10%), white resin, sugars (glucose and mannitol), tannins, xanthones, fat, and mucilage constitute other constituents of the leaves. Flavonoids like luteolins and apigenin, coumarins (scopletin, fraxetin, esculatin), steroids (β-sitosterol) are also present28-29.
Figure 3: Lawsone30
Lawsone is the major coloring constituent of henna and the degradation product of the major glycosides hennoside A, B, and C27.
Uses:
Applied as an astringent, acrid, diuretic, emetic, expectorant, depurative, liver tonic, haematinic, and anti-inflammatory, it is used in styptic, jaundice, trichogenous, fever, wounds, bronchitis, ulcers, cough, and rheumatalgia. It treats ailments such as burning sensation, headache, diarrhea, dysentery, leucoderma, scabies, leprosy, boils, hepatopathy, amenorrhea, splenopathy, anemia, hemorrhages, hair fall, and hair greyness28-29. The leaf's active ingredient, lawsone, is also antifungal and antibacterial. As a preferred hair dye, used individually or in blends, for dyeing gray hair, it is prominently placed in various hair preparations like rinses and conditioners27,31.
3. Palash:
Palash comprises the dried seeds, fruits, leaves, and flowers of Butea monosperma Lam., which is a member of the family Fabaceae11. The chemical constituents of various parts of the plant are as under: In flowers, the principal chemical constituent responsible for giving color is butein. Other constituents are monospermoside, β-sitosteron, coreopsin, isocoreopsin, flavonoids (palasitrin and prumetin), and steroids. In the leaves, glucoside and kino-oil containing palmitic acid, lignoceric acid, oleic acid, and linoleic acid occur. In the seeds, proteolytic and lipolytic enzymes, plant proteinase, polypeptidase, butin, monospermoside, α-amyrin, and β-sitosterol are found in the oil. Gum contains mucilaginous material, tannins, and pyrocatechin. Bark includes several tannins such as kinno-tannic acid, pyrocatechin, as well as palasitrin, butolic acid, lupeol, lupenone, gallic acid, cyanidin, shelloic acid, butrin, and histidine. Roots contain glucose, glycine, glucosides, and several aromatic compounds. Resins include Z-amyrin, E-sitosterone, glucoside, and sucrose29.
Uses:
Ayurvedic doctors use palash seeds as a treatment for diarrhoea and dysentery. Juices extracted from palash roots, bark, and leaves are used to treat menstrual flow, colic, and to ward off intestinal worms. Palash leaf ointment is used to cure inflammation, boils, acne, and to shrink hemorrhoids11. Leaf also has antimicrobial property33. The flowers show astringent, depurative, and tonic properties. In addition, palash also exhibits other activities such as anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, nephroprotective, anti-inflammatory, anti-stress, antioxidant, and free radical scavenging activities11. Palash dye is employed for cotton dyeing and as a colorant in pharmaceutical dosage forms, soft drinks and other food items like sausages, jam etc29.
4. Saffron:
It contains dried stigmas and the upper portion of the styles of the plant called Crocus Sativus Linn., which belongs to the family Iridaceae34. The major principal active constituents of saffron stigma are carotenoid glycosides: crocin, crocetin, and picrocrocin (4%). It also contains essential oil, safranal (0.4 to 1.3%). Saffron is abundant in more than 150 volatile and aroma-producing compounds, such as non-volatile active components. Most of them are carotenoides pigments, including zeaxanthin, lycopene, some α and β-carotenes, and flavonoids. Saffron also comprises fixed oil and starch. Crocin and crocetin, carotenoid pigments, give saffron a golden yellow-orange hue. Picrocrocin gives the bitter taste, and safranal gives the smell and scent of saffron35.
Uses:
Saffron is used for a range of applications, such as the cure of whooping cough (pertussis), cure of dry skin disorders, relief from pain and inflammation, and healing of second-degree burns. It acts to protect the retina against sun damage and is used as an antispasmodic, emmenagogue, and stimulant. Saffron is also used in the cure of sexual dysfunction as an anti-UV agent, antioxidant, antidepressant, expectorant, nerve sedative, and carminative9,35. In culinary uses, saffron is used as a spice, flavoring, and coloring agent. In addition, it is a key component in many cosmetic products that are both coloring as well as flavoring agents34-35.
5. Annatto:
They are the dried seeds of the plant Bixa orellana Linn, family Bixaceae12. The chemical composition of the annatto seeds is interesting: Every annatto seed is enveloped by an aril and holds the bixin pigment. Annatto seeds contain around 12% annatto oleo resin and 50% of this is soluble in water. The content of the original volatile oil is 0.3% to 0.8%, and the pigment contains approximately 4% to 5%. The main component of the pigment is bixin, which accounts for 70-80% of the pigment. Bixin is a carotenoid carboxylic acid that contributes the yellow color, and its other isomers are isobixin, transbixin, and norbixin. Bixin and norbixin are the chief coloring constituents of annatto. Other constituents found in annatto are crocetin, ishwarane, flavonoids, essential oils, and gallic acid. The root has triterpene, tomentosic acid37.
Uses:
Annatto finds application as an antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer agent. Its leaves are used for neutralizing snake venom and jaundice. Root and leaf extracts possess strong anti-gonorrheal activity. The leaves of Bixa are used in treating skin disorders and hepatitis, used as an antipyretic, antidysenteric, and aphrodisiac. In addition, it is also used as a colorant in numerous uses such as foods, cosmetics (lipstick), alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks, dairy desserts, oils and fats, and in margarine. Annatto color is used in leather tanning37.
6. Tagetus:
It consists of the flowering head of the plant Calendula officinalis, Asteraceae39. The major coloring pigment of the marigold flower is lutein, a fat-soluble carotenoid that is responsible for yellow to orange color of the dye40. Lutein is an oxycarotenoid or xanthophyll with two cyclic end groups and the typical C-40 isoprenoid base structure shared by all carotenoids41. Other constituents are galenine, lycopene, α-carotene, β-carotene, flavonoids, zeaxanthin, and triterpenoids39
Figure 6: Lutein42
Uses:
It is used as an anti-inflammatory agent, antioxidant agent, anti-diabetic agent, anti-epileptic agent, anti-bacterial agent, antimicrobial agent, insecticidal agent, mosquitocidal agent, and anti-hyperlipidemic agent. The flower juice is a cure for bleeding piles and is also used in the treatment of rheumatism, colds, and bronchitis43. The carotenoid extracts are found to be safe for use in foods, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics39. Also, the petal flowers provide a natural pigment, and crude extracts are used for coloring fabrics43.
7. Shoeblack plant:
It is a combination of Hibiscus rosasinensis Linn flowers and leaves, which comes under the family Malvaceae44. Different bioactive constituents like tannins, anthraquinones, quinines, phenols, flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenoids, saponins, cardiac glycosides, proteins, free amino acids, carbohydrates, reducing sugars, mucilage, essential oils, and steroids are found in different parts of the plant having therapeutic potential. Stigmasterol, taraxeryl acetate, β-sitosterol, and 3-cyclopropane compounds are found in the stem and leaves45. Proanthocyanidins and anthocyanins, quercetin-3-diglucoside, kaempferol-3-xylosylglucoside, and cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside are found in flowers14. Tannins, mucilage, flavonoids, and saponins are found in roots45.
Figure 7(a): Quercetin46 Figure 7 (b): β-sitosterol47
Uses:
Historically, the flowers have been used for menstrual cycle regulation, liver problems, hypertension, anti-tussive, pain in the stomach, eye ailments, abortion, emmenagogue, and aphrodisiac. The flowers and young leaves have been used to ease headaches14. Stem bark is useful in causing abortion, and roots are consumed as medicine against stomach illness, gonorrhea, and vomiting blood45. Petals were used to induce denser hair growth and avoid early graying, baldness, and scalp diseases14. Leaves have emollient activity and are amenable to the treatment of dysentery and diarrhea38. Alcoholic and aqueous leaf extracts exhibit anti-infective, anti-dandruff, and preventive effects against multiple skin afflictions and allergitis. The plant shows activities like anti-fertility, anti-diabetic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial. The oil extracted from the plant is utilized in cosmetics, maintaining the flexibility and elasticity of the skin and minimizing the signs of aging. Flowers are used to create a dark purple color employed for blackening shoes and for dyeing eyebrow hair, hairs, and liquors. It is added to the majority of beauty care products such as shampoos, conditioners, lotions, and perfumes. Extracts are applied as flavoring agents in food items like jams, sauces, spices, and soups48. It is employed in the treatment of cough, anxiety, diarrhea, asthma, fever, arthritis, dysentery, genitourinary, vomiting, gastric disorder, cardiac disorder, insect, ringworm, snake bite, malaria and scorpion bites49.
8. Madder:
It consists of dried short rootstock of Rubiacordifolia Linn., a plant that belongs to the Rubiaceae family50. Various types of bioactive compounds, like anthraquinones and glycosides, naphthoquinones and glycosides, terpenes, bicyclic hexapeptides, iridoids, carboxylic acids (malic acid, citric acid, quinic acid, rosmarinic acid), and saccharides (xylose, ribose, fructose, glucose, sucrose, primverose), were extracted from different parts of R. cordifolia. The roots which are dried contain mollugin, furomollugin, eugenol, and (E) anethole as the main constituents in the essential oil with eugenol, geraniol, and geranyl acetate as the most odor compounds. The roots have a combination of purpurin, munjistin, trace quantities of xanthopurpurin, and pseudopurpurin. Purpurin is the principal coloring constituent while Munjistin is a dye that is orange occurring in the form of a glycoside51.
Figure 8: Purpurin 52
Uses:
It also contains tonic, astringent, antidysenteric, and antiseptic activities and is also applied in the treatment of rheumatism50. R. cordifolia may be applied as a solo drug for the treatment of chikungunya fever. Leaf extract is applied during cataract of the eyes, conjunctivitis, and also to purify the eyes51. The dye obtained from the root is also applied as a textile dye and dye for hair. Madder extracts are used as a coloring agent in confections and soft drinks owing to its beneficial property of heat and light resistance. Madder has also been utilized as natural coloring agents in food, medicated oils, syrups, etc.51. It is applied for dyeing cotton clothes, blankets, and carpets50. It shows anti-acne, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-microbial, gastro-protective, anti-proliferative, diuretic, anti-diabetic, and wound healing activities53.
9. Red beetroot
Red beetroot is a subspecies of Beta vulgaris ssp. Vulgaris L., a species of Beta vulgaris L., a genus of Beta L., a subfamily of Betoideae of the family goosefoot (Amaranthaceae), and an order of Caryophyllales54. Further, the leaves have a high content of antioxidant and vitamins, and therefore can be utilized as food and also cooked as a spinach55.
Figure 9: Betanin58
Red beets contain betalain pigments so that it possesses commercial and pharmaceutical applications like natural food coloring, cosmetics and pharmaceutical preparations56. Carotenoids, glycine betanine, betacyanins, anthrocyanins, tannins, saponins, folates, flavonoids, vitamins, fatty acids and minerals are its active compounds57.
Uses:
Conventional, beet root possess varied medicinal properties along with anti-oxidants, anti-depressants, anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic, immunomodulatory, diuretic and also used in cough treatment. It is employed as a nutritional supplement containing rich vitamins, minerals, amino acid and vitamins and possesses specific phytoconstituents. It is helpful in foetus growth during pregnancy. It is applied as natural meal coloration for dairy and meat products57.
10. Carica papaya Linn.
Papaya comprises the fruit of the plant Carica papaya linn. The family Carica Linn. is represented by four species in India, of which Carica papaya Linn. is the most cultivated and well-known species. Of the other species, C. cauliflora Jacq., C. pubescens Lenne and K. Koch and C. quercifolia Benth. and Hook.f. ex Hieron. are potential sources of breeding material for the induction of virus and frost resistance in papaya grown under cultivation. Papaya is rich in a broad spectrum of phytochemicals consisting of, polysaccharides, vitamins, minerals, enzymes, proteins, alkaloids, glycosides, fats and oils, lectins, saponins, flavonoids, sterols, etc. Fruit is rich in protein, fat, fibre, carbohydrates, minerals: calcium, phosphorous, iron, vitamin C, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and carotene, amino acids, citric and malic acids (green fruits), volatile compounds: linalool, benzylisothiocyanate, cis and trans 2, 6-dimethyl-3,6 epoxy-7 octen-2-ol, Alkaloid, α; carpaine, benzyl-β-D glucoside, 2-phenylethyl -β-D-glucoside, 4-hydroxyphenyl-2 ethyl-β-D-glucoside and four isomeric malonated benzyl-β-D-glucosides. Seeds have fatty acids, crude protein, crude fibre, carpaine, benzylisothiocyanate, benzylglucosinolate, glucotropacolin, benzylthiourea, hentriacontane, β-sitosterol, caricin and an enzyme myrosin. Leaves have Alkaloids carpain, pseudocarpain and dehydrocarpaine I and II, choline, carposide, vitamin C and E59.
Figure 10: Carpaine60
Uses:
Parts of the plant are used as a medicine such as ripe and unripe fruit, leaf, seed, seed juice, flowers, stem bark and root. Unripe and ripened fruit is processed into juice and beverages for stomach ailments, to cure obesity and for urinary tract infection. Unripe and ripened fruit is also processed into paste form as topical dressings or cosmetic (ointment, soap) to heal burns and skin ailment, for general antibacterial action, and for de-snakebite poisoning. Seed juice and unripe fruit juice are both applied in order to reduce enlarged spleen and liver. Besides, unripe fruit is powdered, ground into paste to treat skin ailments and chewed for carminative and anthelmintic action and for the treatment of bleeding piles. Young papaya leaf is consumed as vegetable in certain regions of India61. Papaya is used to enrich flavor by making a sauce of papaya in place of butter cake as a fat substitute62.
CONCLUSION:
Natural dyes are not only known for their coloring value but also for their medicinal values. Thankfully, more and more people are aware of natural dyes and dyes-producing plants these days. Being non-toxic, natural dyes possess very few side effects, and their medicinal values are higher compared to synthetic dyes. Natural dyes are thus applied in daily foods and the pharma sector. In the current context, increasing international issues regarding the application of azo and benzidine synthetic dyes due to their carcinogenic, non-biodegradable properties and harmful impacts on the environment and human health have strengthened demands for the use of natural dyes in human society, particularly in packaging materials and consumer products. Natural dyeing is slowly picking up pace in the international market, and the manufacture of naturally dyed environmentally friendly fabrics is a great stride towards maintaining the environment safe from the toxic impact of synthetic dyes. This review centers on different herbal plants that possess varied pharmacological activities, especially their use in cosmetics. The review also gives prominence to the formulations of natural dyes commercially available.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare no conflicts of interest for this study.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:
Authors are putting on record their heartfelt gratitude to Principal, Teaching and non-teaching staff of Dr. Subhash University, Junagadh, Gujarat, India for their direction and guidance towards this review work.
REFERENCES
Shankar Bali*, Vishal Lande, Rushikesh Navale, Dhananjay Popalghat, Karan Gavhane, Nilesh Gwali, Dr. Shivshankar Mhaske, Pankaj Fitawe, Natural Dyes: A Comprehensive Review on Medicinal Plant-Based Pigments and Culinary Herbs as Flavor Enhancers, Int. J. of Pharm. Sci., 2025, Vol 3, Issue 5, 4117-4128. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15508721
10.5281/zenodo.15508721
