Microplastics: Sources, Environmental Distribution and Impacts on Human Health - A Comprehensive Review

Sakshi Mane, Sanika Mhatre, Nikita Mhaske, Soham Kale, Pratiksha Mangam ,

doi:10.5281/zenodo.19511074

Review Paper | Open Access
Volume 04 | Issue 04 | Article Id IJPS/260403650

Microplastics: Sources, Environmental Distribution and Impacts on Human Health - A Comprehensive Review
Sakshi Mane* Sanika Mhatre Nikita Mhaske Soham Kale Pratiksha Mangam
microplastic, environmental pollution, plastic waste, drinking water,human exposure

Abstract

Microplastics are environmental pollutants that prevail in the oceans, remote islands, and polar regions. Exposure to microplastics presents a major emerging threat to the ecosystems due to their potential adverse effects. Herein, we reviewed the literature to provide an up-to-date synopsis of the current understanding of the sources, compositions, and adverse effects of microplastics in humans and the environment[1].An estimated 265 million metric tons of plastic waste are produced globally each year, with about 4.8–12.7 million metric tons ending up in the ocean. Microplastics can infiltrate the food chain or come into contact with humans through the skin, eventually penetrating and accumulating in the body. Globally, individuals are estimated to consume between 11,845 and 193,200 microplastic particles per year, with drinking water identified as the primary source. The toxicity of microplastics stems from both their inherent properties and their ability to interact with other pollutants, such as heavy metals[2].

Keywords

microplastic, environmental pollution, plastic waste, drinking water,human exposure

Introduction

Microplastics present in the environment can enter the human body through direct pathways such as inhalation, water consumption, skin contact, as well as indirect pathways such as the food chain. It was demonstrated that people could intake about 5 g of plastic particles every week which is the equivalent weight of a credit card, through the food, drinking water, and air they breathe (Advisors et al., 2019). Once microplastics enter the body through ingestion or inhalation, they can translocate to various tissues and organs. Up to now, microplastics have been detected from the blood (Leslie et al., 2022), colon (Ibrahim, 2021), testes (Zhao et al., 2023), endometrium (Sun et al., 2024), and secretions and excretions outside the body such as semen (Zhao et al., 2023), sputum (Schwabl et al., 2019), breast milk (Ragusa et al., 2022), and feces (Shruti et al., 2020). Due to their stability and strong adsorption capacity (as discussed above), microplastics can act as carriers for environmental pollutants and pathogenic microorganisms, facilitating their entry into the human body[3]. Microplastics have also been detected in fruits and vegetables,including pears, tomatoes and cherry tomatoes, as well as in vegetables and cereals such as wheat, rice, green onions, corn, Italian lettuce, carrots, and broad beans. The concentration of MPs in soil is estimated to be 4 to 23 times higher than in oceans, largely due to the use of fertilizers and certain agricultural practices, thereby posing contamination risks to crops[4]. Microplastics (MPs), typically characterized as plastic fragments under 5 mm in size, build up in the environment either through the degradation of larger plastic waste or via direct discharge. The scientific community is focused on identifying, quantifying, and assessing the potential impacts of MPs after they enter the environment and the human body[5].Microplastics are gaining great matter of attention due to their extensive diffusion and negative effects on the human health and the environment too . Since the coronavirus infection pandemic of 2019, there has been a considerable increase in microplastic exposure in addition to the misuse of disposable personal protective equipment items . Microplastics can enter the body by ingestion, degradation, or skin absorption. Numerous health issues, including neurotoxicity, endocrine system disruption, cancer, and metabolic changes, might result from it .Moreover, due to their detrimental effects on both terrestrial and aquatic biota, MPs have an immediate negative impact on both terrestrial and marine ecosystems thus, efficient microplastic remediation is essential [6].

Source:-

Fig no 1. Source of microplastic[7].

Classification

The microplastics are generally classified based on a) Origin in the environment, b) Shape, c) Size, d) Colour, e) Type of polymer, f) Surface property (viz. charge), and g) Buoyancy of microplastics, with the following justification:

Class based on origin of MP in the environment

The two sub-categories of microplastics according to their origin in the environment are-primary and secondary microplastics. Primary Microplastics are micro-sized plastic objects manufactured purposefully for specific applications[20], viz ‘Microbeads’, Nurdles, and Plastic-based glitters. The origin of Secondary Microplastics in the environment is the fragmentation of larger plastic products by mechanical, chemical, radiation, or biological degradation

Class based on shape

Fibrous MPs are among the most dominant types of microplastics observed in the natural environment.

The MPs are classified based on their shape viz. Beads (or Spherules), Microspheres, Films, Irregular fragments, Cylinders (or Disks), and Fibres.

Class based on colour

MPs exhibit a variety of colours; from transparent or opaque to light (white, green, and yellow) or deep (blue, black, brown, tan, and red).

Fig.no.2 Percentage (%) of colours of microplastics reported in laboratory and field studies[8].

Class based on the type of polymers

Numerous studies also describe how commonly used commercial polymers degrade under environmental conditions. The speed and pathway of degradation depend on factors such as pH, temperature, light exposure, humidity, microbial activity, usage conditions, and the presence of additives. Degradation generates a variety of by-products, further expanding the range of contaminants in ecosystems.

Table 1. Commonly used MPs polymers and their main applications[9].

Polymer Type	Application
Polyethylene (PE)	Plastic bottles, supermarket bags
Polypropylene (PP)	Packaging, bottle caps, ropes, carpets, laboratory equipment, drinking straws
Polyester (PES)	Textiles
Polystyrene (PS)	Packaging foam, disposable cups, food containers, CDs, building materials
Polyamides (PA)	Textiles, toothbrush bristles, fishing lines, automotives
Polycarbonate (PC)	CDs, DVDs, construction materials, electronics, lenses
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)	Pipes, window frames, flooring, shower curtains
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)	Soft drink bottles, food packaging, thermal insulation, blister packs
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE)	Packaging, general-purpose containers, shower curtains, floor tiles
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)	Musical instruments, printers, computer monitors, drainage pipes, protective equipment

Class based on Surface Properties of Polymers

Studies by Bhattacharya (2010) found that positively charged polystyrene (PS) nanoparticles attach more strongly to cellulose-based surfaces and algae because these surfaces are slightly negatively charged. Rougher surfaces also enhance particle attachment. Similar results were observed by Nolte (2017), who reported that algae such as P. subcapitata show greater attraction to neutral or positively charged PS particles.Sundbaek (2018) noted high sorption of positively charged PS particles on damaged seaweed surfaces due to negatively charged alginate secretion. Additionally, Hossain (2018) observed more bacterial colonization on weathered polypropylene (PP) compared to new plastic. Chelsea Rochman (2015) reported that microplastics can also adsorb heavy metals.

Overall, microplastics can attract organic pollutants, heavy metals, and microorganisms, acting as carriers that transport these substances across aquatic environments—a process known as rafting.

Class based on buoyancy (Density)

In the marine eco-system, MPs are omnipresent, from the surface water, throughout the water column to the sediment[3][79]. In general, the MPs with a density lower than the surrounding water (viz. EPS – expanded Polystyrene, PU-Polyurethane, PP – polypropylene, LDPE – low density polyethylene, and HDPE – high density polyethylene with density range 0.02-0.06 to 0.94-0.96 g cm-3) floats near the surface or are suspended in sub-surface water, while MPs with high-density (viz. PS – polystyrene, PVC – polyvinyl chloride, PET – polyethylene terephthalate with density range 1.04-1.11 to 1.38-1.40 g cm-3) sink to the benthic environment[10].

Historical Background and Context

Discovery and Evolution of Microplastics Research

The scientific documentation of microplastics began in the early 2000s when Researchers investigating seawater samples near Japanese coastal areas identified Small plastic particles in marine sediments and water. However, the landmark 2004 Study by Dr. Richard Thompson, often regarded as the “godfather of microplastics,” Formally established and named the phenomenon, demonstrating that microplastics Were widespread contaminants in marine environments. Thompson’s seminal work Identified microfibers from synthetic textiles and fragments from the degradation of Larger plastic debris as significant contributors to marine microplastic Pollution[11].

Regulatory and Policy Evolution

Prior to 2015, the primary regulatory focus on plastic-related contamination centered On the unintended persistence of larger plastic waste rather than the deliberate addition Of microplastics to consumer products. In 2015, the United States implemented the Microbead-Free Waters Act, becoming the first jurisdiction to prohibit intentional Microplastic additions to rinse-off cosmetics and personal care products. This Regulatory action was followed by similar bans in the European Union, Canada, and Numerous other countries, establishing a precedent for microplastic-specific Legislation[12].

Exposure pathway of micro and nanoplastics:

Microplastics (MPs) are widely distributed across soil, water, and air, making exposure common for many organisms. Their size, shape, density, color, and concentration influence bioavailability and toxicity. Recent research highlights their movement through food chains and effects on marine and freshwater species.

Fig.no.3.Exposure pathway of microplastic

A Meta-analysis showed high impacts (organ damage, reduced reproduction, mortality) at concentrations above 100 MPs/L in water or 100 MPs/kg in sediment, while lower levels mainly cause temporary behavioral changes. Exposure occurs through ingestion, inhalation, contact, and entanglement, either accidentally or through selective feeding.

Plant

Plants are exposed to MPs through contact (from MPs fallout or through contaminated water or irrigation water) and ingestion by uptake through the rhizosphere in the plastic-soil matrix. Contact exposure was reported for aquatic plant e.g. Duckweed (lemma minor) and moss plant (Sphagnum palustre L). MPs made of polyethylene (PE) are adhering to whole L. minor colonies by exposing to 50,000 MPs/mL of size dimension of 10–45 μm . Capozzi et. Al. also made similar observation for polystyrene (PS) on S. palustre L in freshwater.

Animal

The exposure route of animals, including marine and soil organisms, to MPs is by entanglement and ingestion . One of the major reasons why some marine organisms get entangled or ingest MPs is due to the formation of biofilm on the microplastic surface . Biofilm forming processes on virgin microplastic particles begin within seconds of the first contact with ambient water .The number of marine species reported to have interacted with plastic debris has increased over time with current counts over 1,000, while about 800 of these have shown interaction with MPs.Land or terrestrial animals are mainly herbivorous, e.g. goat, cow, etc., and they may be exposed indirectly by consuming MP-contaminated plant and/or directly from consuming contaminated animal feed or water. Carnivores, e.g. lion, tiger, etc., may then be exposed through food-chain process or trophic transfer by consuming or feeding on herbivores tissues and bio-system. The food chain exposure processes are also often exhibited in the aquatic ecosystem, for example, whale or sharks feeding on smaller marine animals may have ingested MPs or amphipod Gammarus duebeni eating PE laden L. minor . Generally, data on the presence of MPs in freshwater macroinvertebrates are scarce, as most studies have focused on fish and birds .

Human

The routes of exposure of humans to MPs are diverse. The summary and mechanism of exposure are presented . The ingestion may be by oral route which involves consumption of contaminated water, food products (honey and beverages), through use of personal care products (toothpaste, face wash, scrubs, soap; also dermal route), marine.Product (food chain), plant (food chain), contact (dermal) from soil, water or fallout of airborne MPs, from particulate fallout from air during open meal and inhalation.Humans may also be directly exposed to MPs through the actual ingestion of these particles from drinking water, honey, beers and table salt . MPs have been found in drinking water sources but in low concentrations.MPs can also be ingested indirectly through personal care products such as toothpaste, face wash, scrubs and soap . There are reports of MPs present in diverse personal care products. Results from a recent study showed that 50 % of the face wash products and 67 % of the facial scrubs studied mainly contained microbeads . These microbeads can cause skin aging and dark spots on the skin by letting in bacteria through the tiny rips formed. Kaur explained that tiny rips in the skin may occur from exposing the skin to microbeads in personal care products [15].

Fig.no.4. Interconnection network through which MNPLs are distributed throughout all environmental niches, reaching humans through different exposure routes[12].

Table 2.Biological specimens for detection of microplastics. Microplastic contamination was found in biological specimens such as blood, sputum, meconium, faeces, saliva, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, and placenta[13].

Study participants	Locations	Technique of analysis	Polymer types
Three meconium, six infants, and ten adult faeces	New York	Mass spectrometry	Polyethylene terephthalate and polycarbonate
Faeces of patients with inflammatory bowel disease and healthy people	China	Raman spectroscopy	Polyethylene terephthalate and polyamide
Faeces of eight healthy volunteers aged 33 to 65 years	Europe and Asia	Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy	Polypropylene and polyethylene terephthalate
Sputum of 22 patients suffering from different respiratory diseases	China	Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy	Polyurethane polyester, chlorinated polyethylene, and alkyd varnish
8000 samples of saliva from adult	Iran	Raman spectroscopy	Not detected
Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from 44 adult patients undergoing a bronchoscopy	Europe	Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy	Microfibres (rayon/viscose polyester cellulose and cotton)
Blood samples from 22 healthy volunteers	Netherlands	Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy	Polyethylene terephthalate, polyethylene, and polymers of styrene
Placenta from healthy women and have a vaginal delivery	Italy	Raman microspectroscopy	Polypropylene
Placental tissue and meconium specimens during two caesarean sections for breech deliveries	Austria	Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy	Polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, and polyurethane

Properties of microplastic :-

Physical Properties

The physical characteristics of microplastics determine how they move through the ocean, air, and soil, as well as which organisms are likely to ingest them.

Size and Shape: Microplastics come in various forms, including spheres (beads), fragments, fibers, and films[14].Fibers, often shed from synthetic textiles, are among the most common shapes found in environmental samples[15].

Density: This is a crucial factor in their distribution. Low-density plastics (like polyethylene) float on the surface, while high-density plastics (like PVC) sink to the benthos (ocean floor).

Color: Often mistaken for prey by marine life, the color of microplastics (transparent, white, or brightly colored) influences their ingestion rate by visual predators[16].

Chemical Properties

The chemical makeup of microplastics is a “double-edged sword”—they are inherently stable but can carry toxic hitchhikers[17].

Polymer Composition: Most microplastics are made of polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), or polyethylene terephthalate (PET).

Hydrophobicity: Microplastics are "water-fearing." This property allows them to attract and concentrate Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) from the surrounding water, such as PCBs and DDT[18].

Additives: During manufacturing, chemicals like phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA) are added to give plastic specific qualities (flexibility, UV resistance)[19].

Surface Properties and “Eco-corona”

When microplastics enter the environment, they don’t stay “clean” for long.

High Surface Area-to-Volume Ratio: Because they are so small, they have a massive relative surface area, which increases their capacity to adsorb chemicals and microorganisms[20].

Biofilm Formation: Microorganisms quickly colonize the surface of microplastics, creating an “eco-corona” or plastisphere. This can change the particle’s density, causing it to sink, and can even transport invasive species or pathogens across oceans[21].

Abundance and distribution of MPs in aquatic ecosystem:-

MP quantity and distributions are influenced by both anthropogenic and environmental variables ; these vary widely, depending on the re-Gion, hydrodynamic circumstances, environmental pressure, and du-Ration . The presence and distribution of MPs in Various aquatic ecosystems are summarised. Marine deBris is the outcome of uncontrolled garbage disposal in rivers, lakes,Ponds, and canals, which is then transmitted either explicitly or implic-Itly to marine water, freshwater, brackish water, or estuarine habitats. Coral reefs are a prominent accumulator of MPs In the marine ecosystem (Huang et al., 2020). In addition, wastewater Treatment plants are thought to be a source of MPs in aquatic habitats.

MPs in freshwater ecosystems

The concentration of MPs in surface water tends to increase gradually as the river flows from the countryside through cities. MP pollution has become a global concern; however, so far, few studies have been conducted on the freshwater ecosystem compared to the marine ecosys-tem.

MPs in brackish water ecosystems

Estuaries are particularly vulnerable to MP pollution given to their close proximity to human settlements, and coastal communities rely on a wide range of resources in the aquatic zone for their subsistence.Researchers have investigated the quantity of MPs in Brackish water and discovered a significant percentage of MP pollutants. Furthermore, in Bangladesh,MPs have been found in water and sediments, mainly in Cox’s Bazar.

MPs in marine ecosystems

Detailed investigation of marine water has demonstrated MP pollution in marine ecosystems worldwide (Isobe, 2016; Veerasingam et al.,2016). A wide range of MPs in marine ecosystems are summarized in Distribution of MPs from the north to the south coast of the Bay of Bengal is affected by season, as anticyclonic rotation causes the transportation of MP debris.The plastic particles found in the Asia region mostly originate from Secondary MPs (Hamid et al., 2018). In Europe, the presence of MPs have also been documented in marine water as well as in organisms.Various factors, such as tourism, which promotes human intensity and engagement,Urban expansion, and environmental pressure, are all linked to higherMP concentrations in water bodies (Frère et al., 2017; Gündo?du et al.,2018). Wessel et al. (2016) hypothesized that the likelihood of an abundance of MPs increases with greater water body surface area, longer water residence period, and a combination of both. This could be attributed to exposure of marine debris to tides, waves, currents, and winds for Longer periods.

MPs in coral reefs

MP pollution is considered an emerging threat to coral reefs due to their complex interactions, which include entanglement, smothering, catches, and covering. Plastics can affect the feeding and cleaning mechanisms of certain stony corals. The coral reef regions in the Southeast Asia are considered a hotspot for MP investigation, as these regions constitute the largest coral reef area in the world . The MPs commonly found in coral reefs are mainly composed of fragments, fibers, films, pellets, and granules of diversified colors.

MPs in the aquatic fauna

MP abundance has been identified not only in the physical components of aquatic ecosystems, but also in their biological components. The consumption of MPs by aquatic animals could have a variety of negative effects, including greater DNA damage (Pannetier et al., 2020), limited phagocytic action by cells (Shi et al., 2020), higher levels of adsorbed contaminants by tissues (Han et al., 2021), and altered organismal behavior (Santos et al., 2021). These effects inevitably represent a risk to the biological diversity of the aquatic environment[22].

Research opportunities in microplastic:-

Microplastic research is transitioning from documenting their existence to understanding their systemic impacts on human health and developing advanced mitigation technologies. Research in 2025 and 2026 focuses heavily on standardized detection, the “trojan horse” effect of chemical additives, and the biological activity of nanoplastics[23].

Nanoplasti(NP) and identification:-

Particles smaller than 1 \mu m are likely the most biologically active but remain difficult to extract and identify. Future research must focus on affordable instrumentation for rapid NP detection[17].AI and Machine Learning: Developing automated systems and machine learning algorithms is a high-priority area to decrease identification time and remove human bias during spectroscopic analysis (e.g., FTIR and Raman)[2].

Environmental Fate and Remediation

Tire and Brake Wear: Research shows tire wear contributes up to 10% of ocean plastics. Investigating mitigation strategies for these “invisible” sources is a growing niche[ 24].Microbe-Mediated Degradation: Utilizing specialized microorganisms to break down persistent polymers is a key area of biotechnological research[25].

CONCLUSION

Microplastics have become a global environmental concern because of their widespread presence in water, soil, air, and living organisms. These tiny plastic particles originate from the breakdown of larger plastic materials or from products that intentionally contain small plastic components. Due to their minute size, microplastics can easily enter the food chain and reach humans through drinking water, food, inhalation, or skin contact. Once inside the body, they may accumulate in different tissues and can transport harmful substances such as heavy metals, toxic chemicals, and microorganisms.

The presence of microplastics also threatens aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems by affecting plants, animals, and biodiversity. Their persistence in the environment and ability to interact with other pollutants increase the potential health and ecological risks. Therefore, continuous research, improved monitoring techniques, and effective strategies for plastic waste management are necessary to reduce microplastic pollution and protect environmental and human health.

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