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Abstract

Parthenogenesis represents a distinctive form of asexual reproduction wherein embryos originate from unfertilized eggs. Once considered merely a biological anomaly, it has now been documented across a wide range of taxa, including invertebrates, vertebrates, and plants. Parthenogenesis provides valuable insights into developmental biology, genetics, and evolutionary processes. This review examines its classification, mechanisms, distribution, evolutionary significance, molecular foundations, and emerging roles in biotechnology and conservation. By integrating historical observations with contemporary research, we aim to offer a comprehensive understanding of this alternative reproductive strategy.

Keywords

Parthenogenesis, Asexual reproduction, Apomixis, Automixis, Obligate parthenogenesis

Introduction

Parthenogenesis is a remarkable form of asexual reproduction, wherein offspring develop from eggs without fertilization. This reproductive phenomenon has been observed across a broad spectrum of organisms, including various invertebrates, vertebrates, and plant species, and has drawn considerable attention in the fields of evolutionary biology, genetics, and developmental science. Traditionally viewed as a rare or exceptional occurrence amidst the predominance of sexual reproduction, parthenogenesis is now recognized as an important reproductive mechanism in many species, offering critical insights into biological diversity and evolutionary adaptations. This phenomenon challenges conventional concepts of genetic inheritance and reproductive strategy. Unlike sexual reproduction, which involves genetic contributions from two parents, parthenogenetic reproduction results in progeny that are genetically identical or closely similar to the mother, raising significant implications for understanding genetic variation, adaptation, and speciation across different ecosystems. Several distinct forms of parthenogenesis exist, each characterized by specific biological and cellular processes. Obligate parthenogenesis, wherein organisms reproduce solely through asexual means, and facultative parthenogenesis, where asexual reproduction occurs only under certain conditions, are two principal types documented among various taxa. Understanding these types, along with associated mechanisms such as apomixis (development without meiosis) and automixis (diploidy restoration post-meiosis), is essential for advancing reproductive biology research.
Beyond its biological importance, parthenogenesis has growing significance in biotechnology and conservation science. Its potential applications in areas such as genetic engineering, crop improvement, and the preservation of endangered species have attracted increasing scientific interest. Manipulating parthenogenetic processes could offer solutions to pressing challenges related to biodiversity, genetic resilience, and sustainable agriculture. This review endeavors to delve into the complex nature of parthenogenesis, examining its classifications, mechanisms, evolutionary roles, and practical applications. By weaving together historical knowledge and recent scientific developments, we aim to present a thorough and integrated perspective on this extraordinary reproductive phenomenon.(21)

Figure 1: Overview of Parthenogenesis Across Biological Kingdoms

History

Parthenogenesis, defined as the development of offspring from unfertilized eggs, has captivated scientific and philosophical inquiry for centuries. Its conceptual origins can be traced to ancient Greek philosophy, where figures such as Aristotle speculated about forms of reproduction that might occur without male participation, particularly in lower organisms. Although these early musings lacked empirical validation, they laid an important intellectual foundation for subsequent scientific investigations. The term itself, derived from the Greek "parthenos" (virgin) and "genesis" (origin), embodies this enduring curiosity about the phenomenon of virgin birth.

The first experimental evidence for parthenogenesis emerged during the 18th century. In 1745, Swiss naturalist Charles Bonnet provided one of the earliest documented examples when he observed that female aphids could reproduce without mating. Subsequent studies expanded these findings to other species, including rotifers, daphnia, and hymenopterans (bees, ants, and wasps), where males are produced from unfertilized eggs via haplodiploid mechanisms.

The field entered a new era in the early 20th century when researchers such as Jacques Loeb successfully induced artificial parthenogenesis in species like sea urchins. Through chemical treatments, thermal shocks, and mechanical stimuli, they demonstrated that eggs could be activated to initiate development without fertilization. These experiments revolutionized embryology, highlighting the minimal conditions necessary for embryonic development.

Advancements in cytology and molecular genetics during the mid-to-late 20th century further deepened understanding of the cellular mechanisms underpinning parthenogenesis. Researchers distinguished between different forms, such as apomixis, where meiosis is entirely bypassed, and automixis, where diploidy is restored post-meiosis. Moreover, discoveries showed that parthenogenesis was not exclusive to invertebrates but also occurred in vertebrates, including reptiles, amphibians, and certain fish species. Documented cases in whiptail lizards, sharks, and sporadically in birds and snakes challenged the long-standing assumption that complex animals necessarily rely on sexual reproduction.

With the advent of genomics and bioinformatics in the 21st century, the study of parthenogenetic species at the molecular level has advanced significantly. These technologies have illuminated aspects of genetic stability, diversity, and the evolutionary viability of asexual lineages. Furthermore, parthenogenesis has gained practical significance in biotechnology, particularly in plant breeding programs where apomixis is employed to create genetically uniform cultivars. In conservation biology, parthenogenesis offers a crucial reproductive strategy for preserving isolated or endangered populations.

From ancient philosophical speculation to cutting-edge scientific application, the history of parthenogenesis traces a remarkable journey. It continues to reshape fundamental views on reproduction, offering profound insights into the dynamics of genetics, development, and evolutionary biology.(15)

Classification

1. Based on Frequency of Occurrence

1.1 Obligate Parthenogenesis

Obligate parthenogenesis is a type of asexual reproduction where a species relies entirely on females to reproduce, with no need for males. In this process, females generate offspring from eggs that develop without being fertilized, often producing genetically identical copies of themselves. This method is found in various invertebrates, like aphids, rotifers, and nematodes, as well as in a few reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Examples include the marbled crayfish and certain whiptail lizards that consist only of females. While this form of reproduction allows for quick population growth and doesn’t require mating, it also reduces genetic diversity, which may make the species more susceptible to environmental challenges.

  • Organisms reproduce only through parthenogenesis.
  • Often associated with entirely female species.
  • Examples:

Aspidoscelis uniparens (Whiptail lizards), Certain aphids, Some rotifers.

1.2 Facultative Parthenogenesis

Facultative parthenogenesis is a reproductive method where organisms can switch between sexual and asexual reproduction based on their environment or whether mates are present. These species usually reproduce sexually, but in situations where males are not available, females can still produce offspring from unfertilized eggs. This phenomenon has been recorded in a range of animals, such as certain reptiles, insects, and sharks. Examples include Komodo dragons, zebra sharks, and boa constrictors, which have shown this ability particularly in captivity or isolated settings. Although this method ensures reproduction when mates are scarce, it typically leads to lower genetic variation than sexual reproduction.

  • Occurs in addition to sexual reproduction.
  • Triggered under stress, low mate availability, or environmental factors.
  • Examples:

Komodo dragons (Varanus komodoensis), Boa constrictors, Zebra sharks (Stegostoma fasciatum).

2. Based on Cytological Mechanism (Cellular/Genetic Process)

2.1 Apomictic Parthenogenesis (Mitotic Parthenogenesis)

Apomictic parthenogenesis is a type of asexual reproduction in which offspring are produced from unfertilized eggs without meiosis. Instead of going through the typical process that mixes or reduces genetic material, the egg is formed through mitosis, keeping the full set of chromosomes. This results in offspring that are exact genetic clones of the mother. Apomictic parthenogenesis is commonly seen in some plants (where it's called apomixis) and in invertebrates like aphids and rotifers. Since there’s no genetic recombination, all offspring are genetically identical to the parent.

  • Egg cells are produced through mitosis (no meiosis).
  • Offspring are clones of the mother (genetically identical).
  • Common in plants and some invertebrates.
  • Examples:

Dandelions (Taraxacum officinale), Some nematodes.

2.2 Automictic Parthenogenesis (Meiotic Parthenogenesis)

Automictic parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction that begins with meiosis, meaning the egg undergoes normal cell division and genetic shuffling. However, instead of being fertilized by a sperm cell, the egg restores its diploid chromosome number by fusing with one of its own polar bodies. This process allows for some genetic variation, so the offspring are not exact clones of the mother, but they are still very genetically similar. Automictic parthenogenesis occurs in some species of insects, reptiles, and fish, and it results in lower genetic diversity than sexual reproduction, but more than in apomictic parthenogenesis.

  • Meiosis occurs, but diploidy is restored through:
    • Terminal fusion (egg fuses with second polar body)
    • Central fusion (egg fuses with first polar body)
    • Endomitosis (chromosome duplication after meiosis)
  • Leads to homozygous or partially homozygous offspring.
  • Examples:

Some insects (e.g., wasps), Reptiles (e.g., geckos, snakes).

3. Based on Ploidy and Chromosomal Mechanisms

3.1 Diploid Parthenogenesis

Diploid parthenogenesis is a reproductive process where offspring develop from unfertilized eggs that maintain the full diploid set of chromosomes. This means the offspring have the same number of chromosomes as the mother, even though no male is involved in reproduction. Diploid parthenogenesis can occur either with or without meiosis, depending on the species. In cases where meiosis does not happen, the offspring are exact genetic copies of the mother. When meiosis does occur, some genetic variation is introduced, but the offspring are still very similar to the mother. This form of reproduction is seen in various organisms, including certain insects and reptiles.

  • The egg retains or restores diploid chromosome number.
  • Offspring are typically viable and fertile.
  • Common in: Whiptail lizards, aphids.

3.2 Haploid Parthenogenesis

Haploid parthenogenesis is a reproductive method where offspring develop from unfertilized eggs that contain a single set of chromosomes, or a haploid number. This results in offspring with only half the genetic material of the mother. Haploid parthenogenesis is commonly found in certain insect species, such as bees and ants, where males are produced from unfertilized eggs (haploid), while females arise from fertilized eggs (diploid). This type of reproduction leads to offspring that are genetically similar to the mother but with a reduced chromosome set.

  • Egg remains haploid and develops into a haploid organism.
  • Often produces males in haplodiploid systems.
  • Examples:

Honeybees (Apis mellifera), Wasps and ants (Hymenoptera).

4. Based on the Sex of the Offspring Produced

4.1 Thelytoky (from Greek thelys, "female")

Thelytoky is a type of parthenogenesis in which females reproduce by producing only female offspring, typically without the involvement of males. This results in a population composed entirely of females, with offspring that are genetically similar to their mother. Thelytoky can occur through different mechanisms, such as apomictic or automictic parthenogenesis, depending on the species. This phenomenon is commonly observed in some invertebrates like aphids and in certain reptiles and fish.

  • Only females are produced.
  • Common in asexual or female-only lineages.
  • Examples:

Whiptail lizards, Some stick insects.

4.2 Arrhenotoky (from Greek arrhen, "male")

Arrhenotoky is a type of parthenogenesis where males develop from unfertilized eggs, while fertilized eggs produce females. This process occurs in species with a haplodiploid system, where males are haploid (having a single set of chromosomes) and females are diploid (with two sets of chromosomes). Arrhenotoky is commonly observed in various insects, including bees, ants, and wasps, where the reproductive system allows for the creation of males without fertilization, and females through fertilized eggs.

  • Only males are produced.
  • Typical in haplodiploid insects like bees and wasps.
  • Examples:

Honeybee drones from unfertilized eggs.

4.3 Deuterotoky (Amphitoky)

Deuterotoky, or amphitoky, is a type of parthenogenesis where both males and females can be produced from unfertilized eggs. This process allows for flexibility in reproduction, as the sex of the offspring can depend on environmental factors like temperature or population density. It is found in some species of insects, such as beetles and aphids, as well as in certain arachnids. By producing both male and female offspring without fertilization, deuterotoky enables the species to maintain reproductive diversity even in the absence of males.

  • Both sexes can be produced from unfertilized eggs.
  • Rare form, usually environmentally regulated.
  • Examples:

Some gall midges, Certain moths.

5. Based on Developmental Timing

5.1 Natural Parthenogenesis

Natural parthenogenesis is a process where offspring develop from unfertilized eggs without the involvement of males. This type of reproduction occurs naturally in a variety of species, resulting in offspring that are generally clones of the mother, though some genetic variation can occur depending on the form of parthenogenesis used. It is common in many insects, such as aphids and bees, and also occurs in certain reptiles and fish. Natural parthenogenesis allows these species to reproduce in environments where mates may be scarce or unavailable.

  • Occurs in nature as part of the normal life cycle.
  • Observed in hundreds of species.

5.2 Artificial (Induced) Parthenogenesis

Artificial or induced parthenogenesis is a process where parthenogenesis is triggered through external means, such as electrical, chemical, or mechanical stimuli, rather than occurring naturally. This technique is often used in scientific research to study reproduction, genetics, and developmental processes. By inducing asexual reproduction, scientists can create offspring from unfertilized eggs, which are genetic clones of the mother. Induced parthenogenesis has been successfully demonstrated in species like frogs and sea urchins, and while it has been attempted in mammals, the results have been limited.

  • Induced in laboratory settings through:
    • Temperature shocks
    • Electrical stimulation
    • Chemical treatments (e.g., strontium chloride)
  • Used in: Developmental biology, cloning studies.
  • Examples:

Artificial parthenogenesis in frogs, sea urchins, and mice.

6. Based on Evolutionary and Ecological Strategy

6.1 Cyclical Parthenogenesis (Heterogony)

Cyclical parthenogenesis, or heterogony, is a reproductive strategy in which an organism alternates between asexual and sexual reproduction depending on environmental conditions. In stable environments, organisms often reproduce asexually, producing offspring that are genetically identical to the mother. However, when conditions change, such as in response to stress, overcrowding, or seasonal variations, the species will switch to sexual reproduction, which creates genetic diversity. This strategy is common in species like aphids, rotifers, and certain crustaceans, allowing them to adapt to varying environmental circumstances.

  • Alternation between asexual (parthenogenetic) and sexual reproduction depending on season or environment.
  • Examples:
    • Aphids (sexual in winter, parthenogenetic in summer)
    • Daphnia (water fleas)

6.2 Sporadic Parthenogenesis

Sporadic parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction that occurs occasionally in species that usually reproduce sexually. This type of reproduction happens irregularly, often triggered by specific environmental factors like the absence of males or stressful conditions. When it does occur, offspring are produced from unfertilized eggs and are genetically similar to the mother. While this form of reproduction is not the primary method for most species, it provides a way for them to reproduce when mating opportunities are scarce. Sporadic parthenogenesis has been observed in various organisms, including some invertebrates, reptiles, and fish.

  • Occurs infrequently or as an anomaly in otherwise sexually reproducing species.
  • May result in non-viable or sterile offspring.
  • Examples:

Rare cases in turkeys and zebra sharks.

6.3 Geographic Parthenogenesis

Geographic parthenogenesis refers to the occurrence of parthenogenesis (asexual reproduction) in specific geographic regions or populations of a species, often due to environmental factors like isolation or a lack of mates. In these areas, species may reproduce mainly or entirely asexually, while in other regions, sexual reproduction is more common. This phenomenon can be influenced by factors such as resource availability or environmental stress. Geographic parthenogenesis is commonly observed in certain invertebrates like aphids and in some reptiles, where local conditions favor asexual reproduction.

  • Parthenogenetic populations are found in specific geographical areas, usually marginal or extreme habitats (e.g., higher latitudes, disturbed environments).
  • Suggests an adaptive role in colonization and survival.(40)
  • Examples:

Unisexual geckos in arid or mountainous regions

7. Based on Taxonomic Distribution

Group

Occurrence

Mechanism Type

Insects

Aphids, bees, wasps, stick insects

Thelytoky, Arrhenotoky, Automixis

Reptiles

Whiptail lizards, geckos, boas

Obligate and facultative

Fish

Amazon molly, zebra sharks

Facultative

Birds

Domestic turkey (rare)

Artificial or sporadic

Mammals

Mice (artificial only)

Induced (no natural cases confirmed)

Plants

Dandelions, hawkweeds

Apomixis (apomictic parthenogenesis)

Protists

Some rotifers

Cyclical parthenogenesis
 

To test parthenogenesis, here are some key methods:

  1. Genetic Testing:

Use microsatellite markers or DNA fingerprinting to check if offspring are genetically identical to the mother.

Mitochondrial DNA analysis can confirm maternal inheritance.

  1. Cytological Analysis:

   Count chromosomes to see if offspring share the same number as the mother.

Use flow cytometry to check DNA content for haploid or diploid status.

  1. Microscopic Observations:

Observe egg development to see if embryos form without fertilization.

Look for meiosis restoration in automictic parthenogenesis.

  1. Cross-Breeding Experiments:

Test for facultative parthenogenesis by limiting mating opportunities and observing asexual reproduction.

  1. Mating Behavior Observation:

Confirm if mating is absent or rare in parthenogenetic species.

  1. Environmental Stress Testing:

Expose organisms to stress conditions to trigger parthenogenesis in facultative species.

  1. Hybridization Tests:

Perform cross-species hybridization in hybridogenetic species to study reproductive patterns.

These methods help confirm whether parthenogenesis is occurring and identify its specific mechanisms.(50)

Application (2)

1. Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering:

  • Cloning of Genetically Modified Plants: Parthenogenesis can be used to propagate genetically engineered plants with specific traits, such as resistance to pests, disease, or environmental stress. This allows for the rapid multiplication of genetically modified crops, ensuring that the desired traits are consistently passed on to all progeny.
  • Accelerated Breeding of Transgenic Crops: With parthenogenesis, crops that have been modified for traits like drought tolerance, higher nutritional content, or improved yield can be quickly and effectively replicated.

2. Restoration of Endangered Plant Species:

  • Propagation of Rare or Endangered Plants: Parthenogenesis can be used to propagate endangered plant species that have limited reproductive success in the wild. This helps in conservation efforts by providing a reliable method to increase population numbers and reintroduce species into their natural habitats.
  • Genetic Conservation: Since parthenogenesis produces genetically identical offspring, it can be useful for preserving the genetic integrity of rare species, especially in cases where maintaining the species’ unique traits is essential for its survival.

3. Agricultural Crop Varieties:

  • Uniform Crops for Agriculture: Parthenogenesis can help produce large quantities of genetically uniform crops, which is especially valuable for large-scale agriculture. This ensures that all plants have the same growth rate, size, and resistance to pests or diseases, making them easier to manage and harvest.
  • Increased Crop Uniformity for Processing: For crops intended for processing (e.g., grains for flour, fruits for juicing), uniformity is essential for efficient harvesting, processing, and packaging. Parthenogenesis allows for the propagation of crops that meet specific quality standards.

4. Flowering and Ornamentals:

  • Propagation of Hybrid Ornamental Plants: Parthenogenesis can be used to propagate hybrid ornamental plants with desirable aesthetic traits, such as color, shape, or fragrance. These plants can be reproduced consistently, ensuring the same visual appeal in gardens, landscaping, or flower industries.
  • Mass Production of Flowering Plants: Horticulturists can use parthenogenesis to rapidly multiply certain flowering plants in a controlled environment, leading to more efficient production and distribution for the ornamental plant market.

5. Seedless Fruit Production:

  • Seedless Fruit Varieties: Many fruit crops, such as seedless grapes, bananas, and citrus fruits, are produced via asexual reproduction methods like parthenogenesis. These seedless varieties are often preferred by consumers and can be produced consistently through parthenogenesis without the need for pollination or fertilization.
  • Increased Consumer Appeal: Seedless fruits are not only more desirable to consumers for convenience but also typically have longer shelf lives, making them more profitable in the market.

6. Control of Weed Populations:

  • Weed Management: Parthenogenesis can be used as a strategy to control the spread of certain invasive or noxious plant species. By manipulating the reproductive systems of invasive plants, researchers can induce or inhibit parthenogenesis to control their spread and reduce the impact on local ecosystems.
  • Regulated Reproduction of Weeds: In certain agricultural contexts, understanding and controlling parthenogenesis can be used to selectively manage weed populations that could otherwise outcompete crops.

7. Agronomic Research and Studies:

  • Study of Plant Genetics and Evolution: Parthenogenesis offers researchers a unique opportunity to study plant genetics, particularly the genetic stability of offspring in the absence of sexual recombination. By observing the impact of environmental conditions on the rate and success of parthenogenesis, scientists can better understand how plants adapt to changing environments.
  • Control of Hybrid Vigor: By using parthenogenesis to clone hybrid plants, researchers can investigate hybrid vigor and how it can be maintained or enhanced through asexual reproduction.

8. Sustainable Agriculture:

  • Reduction in Chemical Inputs: Since parthenogenesis can be used to propagate plants with natural resistance to pests, diseases, or drought, it could contribute to more sustainable agricultural practices by reducing the need for chemical pesticides or fertilizers.
  • Lower Resource Dependency: With parthenogenesis, plants can be rapidly reproduced without the need for pollinators or specific mating conditions, making it easier to grow crops in diverse or challenging environments with fewer resources.

9. Medicinal Plants:

  • Consistent Quality in Medicinal Crops: For plants used in herbal medicine or pharmaceutical production, parthenogenesis can help maintain consistency in active ingredients and overall plant quality. This is crucial for ensuring that medicinal plants retain their potency and therapeutic benefits in every batch.
  • Large-Scale Propagation of Medicinal Plants: In cases where specific medicinal plants are in demand, parthenogenesis provides a way to quickly produce large numbers of plants without the need for seed production or fertilization.

10. Space Agriculture:

  • Reproduction in Controlled Environments: Parthenogenesis can be useful for space agriculture, where controlled environments may limit access to pollinators. For long-term space missions or colonization, growing crops that can reproduce without pollinators would be advantageous for maintaining a steady food supply.(38)

Challenges and Future Research Directions:

While parthenogenesis offers numerous advantages, it also presents challenges. The primary limitation is the reduction in genetic diversity associated with asexual reproduction, which can make populations more vulnerable to diseases and environmental changes. Future research is needed to better understand how genetic diversity is maintained in parthenogenetic populations and whether it is possible to introduce new mechanisms that allow for greater genetic variation.

Additionally, exploring the potential of parthenogenesis in biotechnology, such as cloning and genetic engineering, remains a topic of significant interest. Understanding the molecular and genetic mechanisms behind parthenogenesis could lead to breakthroughs in fields like regenerative medicine and cloning technology.(58)

CONCLUSION

Parthenogenesis is a unique form of reproduction where life begins without fertilization, seen naturally in many plants and animals. It reveals nature's remarkable ability to adapt and reproduce under challenging conditions. In science, it opens doors to innovations in fertility and genetic research. While still experimental in humans, it challenges our understanding of life and inheritance. Parthenogenesis stands at the intersection of biology, possibility, and future potential.

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  45. Mikkelsen, T.S.; Wakefield, M.J.; Aken, B.; Amemiya, C.T.; Chang, J.L.; Duke, S.; Garber, M.; Gentles, A.J.; Goodstadt, L.; Heger, A.; et al. Genome of the marsupial Monodelphis domestica reveals innovation in non-coding sequences. Nature 2007, 447, 167–178.
  46. Schnable, P.S.; Ware, D.; Fulton, R.S.; Stein, J.C.; Wei, F.; Pasternak, S.; Liang, C.; Zhang, J.; Fulton, L.; Graves, T.A.; et al. The B73 maize genome: Complexity, diversity, and dynamics. Science 2009, 326, 1112–1115.
  47. Macas, J.; Neumann, P.; Navratilova, A. Repetitive DNA in the pea (Pisum sativum L.) genome: Comprehensive characterization using 454 sequencing and comparison to soybean and Medicago truncatula. BMC Genom. 2007, 8, 427.
  48. Ruiz-Ruano, F.J.; López-León, M.D.; Cabrero, J.; Camacho, J.P.M. High-throughput analysis of the satellitome illuminates satellite DNA evolution. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 28333.
  49. Levy, S.; Sutton, G.; Ng, P.C.; Feuk, L.; Halpern, A.L.; Walenz, B.P.; Axelrod, N.; Huang, J.; Kirkness, E.F.; Denisov, G.; et al. The diploid genome sequence of an individual human. PLoS Biol. 2007, 5, e254.
  50. Miga, K.H. Completing the human genome: The progress and challenge of satellite DNA assembly. Chromosome Res. 2015, 23, 421–426.
  51. Meštrovi?, N.; Plohl, M.; Mravinac, B.; Ugarkovi?, D. Evolution of satellite DNAs from the genus Palorus-experimental evidence for the “library” hypothesis. Mol. Biol. Evol. 1998, 15, 1062–1068.
  52. Mravinac, B.; Plohl, M.; Meštrovi?, N.; Ugarkovi?, D. Sequence of PRAT satellite DNA “frozen” in some Coleopteran species. J. Mol. Evol. 2002, 54, 774–783.
  53. Mravinac, B.; Plohl, M.; Ugarkovi?, D. Preservation and high sequence conservation of satellite DNAs suggest functional constraints. J. Mol. Evol. 2005, 61, 542–550.
  54. Ugarkovi?, D.; Podnar, M.; Plohl, M. Satellite DNA of the red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum-comparative study of satellites from the genus Tribolium. Mol. Biol. Evol. 1996, 13, 1059–1066.
  55. Feliciello, I.; Chinali, G.; Ugarkovi?, ?. Structure and evolutionary dynamics of the major satellite in the red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum. Genetica 2011, 139, 999–1008.
  56. Bachmann, L.; Venanzetti, F.; Sbordoni, V. Characterization of a species- specific satellite DNA family of Dolichopoda schiavazzii (Orthoptera, Rhaphidophoridae) cave crickets. J. Mol. Evol. 1994, 39, 274–281.
  57. Martinsen, L.; Venanzetti, F.; Johnsen, A.; Sbordoni, V.; Bachmann, L. Molecular evolution of the pDo500 satellite DNA family in Dolichopoda cave crickets (Rhaphidophoridae). BMC Evol. Biol. 2009, 9, 301.
  58. Cafasso, D.; Chinali, G. An ancient satellite DNA has maintained repetitive units of the original structure in most species of the living fossil plant genus Zamia. Genome 2014, 57, 125–135.
  59. Navajas-Pérez, R.; de la Herrán, R.; Jamilena, M.; Lozano, R.; Ruiz Rejón, C.R.; Ruiz Rejón, M.; Garrido-Ramos, M.A. Reduced rates of sequence evolution of Y-linked satellite DNA in Rumex (Polygonaceae). J. Mol. Evol. 2005, 60, 391–399.
  60. Navajas-Pérez, R.; Quesada del Bosque, M.E.; Garrido-Ramos, M.A. Effect of location, organization and repeat-copy number in satellite-DNA evolution. Mol. Genet. Gen. 2009, 282, 395–406. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  61. Navajas-Pérez, R.; Schwarzacher, T.; Ruiz Rejón, M.; Garrido-Ramos, M.A. Characterization of RUSI, a telomere-associated satellite DNA, in the genus Rumex (Polygonaceae). Cytogenet. Genome Res. 2009, 124, 81–89.
  62. Navajas-Pérez, R.; Schwarzacher, T.; Ruiz Rejón, M.; Garrido-Ramos, M.A. Molecular cytogenetic characterization of Rumex papillaris, a dioecious plant with an XX/XY1Y2 sex chromosome system. Genetica 2009, 135, 87–93.
  63. Garrido-Ramos, M.A.; de la Herran, R.; Ruiz Rejón, M.; Ruiz Rejón, C. A satellite DNA of the Sparidae family (Pisces, Perciformes) associated with telomeric sequences. Cytogenet. Cell Genet. 1998, 83, 3–9.
  64. Garrido-Ramos, M.A.; Jamilena, M.; Lozano, R.; Ruiz Rejón, C.; Ruiz Rejón, M. The EcoRI centromeric satellite DNA of the Sparidae family (Pisces, Perciformes) contains a sequence motive common to other vertebrate centromeric satellite DNAs. Cytogenet. Cell. Genet. 1995, 71, 345–351.
  65. Garrido-Ramos, M.A.; de la Herran, R.; Jamilena, M.; Lozano, R.; Ruiz Rejón, C.; Ruiz Rejón, M. Evolution of centromeric satellite-DNA and its use in phylogenetic studies of the Sparidae family (Pisces, Perciformes). Mol. Phyl. Evol. 1999, 12, 200–204.
  66. De la Herrán, R.; Ruiz Rejón, C.; Ruiz Rejón, M.; Garrido-Ramos, M.A. The molecular phylogeny of the Sparidae (Pisces, Perciformes) based on two satellite DNA families. Heredity 2001, 87, 691–697.
  67. Robles, F.; de la Herrán, R.; Ludwig, A.; Ruiz Rejón, C.; Ruiz Rejón, M.; Garrido-Ramos, M.A. Evolution of ancient satellite DNAs in sturgeon genomes. Gene 2004, 338, 133–142.
  68. Árnason, Ú.; Widegren, B. Pinniped phylogeny enlightened by molecular hybridizations using highly repetitive DNA. Mol. Biol. Evol. 1986, 3, 356–365.

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  47. Macas, J.; Neumann, P.; Navratilova, A. Repetitive DNA in the pea (Pisum sativum L.) genome: Comprehensive characterization using 454 sequencing and comparison to soybean and Medicago truncatula. BMC Genom. 2007, 8, 427.
  48. Ruiz-Ruano, F.J.; López-León, M.D.; Cabrero, J.; Camacho, J.P.M. High-throughput analysis of the satellitome illuminates satellite DNA evolution. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 28333.
  49. Levy, S.; Sutton, G.; Ng, P.C.; Feuk, L.; Halpern, A.L.; Walenz, B.P.; Axelrod, N.; Huang, J.; Kirkness, E.F.; Denisov, G.; et al. The diploid genome sequence of an individual human. PLoS Biol. 2007, 5, e254.
  50. Miga, K.H. Completing the human genome: The progress and challenge of satellite DNA assembly. Chromosome Res. 2015, 23, 421–426.
  51. Meštrovi?, N.; Plohl, M.; Mravinac, B.; Ugarkovi?, D. Evolution of satellite DNAs from the genus Palorus-experimental evidence for the “library” hypothesis. Mol. Biol. Evol. 1998, 15, 1062–1068.
  52. Mravinac, B.; Plohl, M.; Meštrovi?, N.; Ugarkovi?, D. Sequence of PRAT satellite DNA “frozen” in some Coleopteran species. J. Mol. Evol. 2002, 54, 774–783.
  53. Mravinac, B.; Plohl, M.; Ugarkovi?, D. Preservation and high sequence conservation of satellite DNAs suggest functional constraints. J. Mol. Evol. 2005, 61, 542–550.
  54. Ugarkovi?, D.; Podnar, M.; Plohl, M. Satellite DNA of the red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum-comparative study of satellites from the genus Tribolium. Mol. Biol. Evol. 1996, 13, 1059–1066.
  55. Feliciello, I.; Chinali, G.; Ugarkovi?, ?. Structure and evolutionary dynamics of the major satellite in the red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum. Genetica 2011, 139, 999–1008.
  56. Bachmann, L.; Venanzetti, F.; Sbordoni, V. Characterization of a species- specific satellite DNA family of Dolichopoda schiavazzii (Orthoptera, Rhaphidophoridae) cave crickets. J. Mol. Evol. 1994, 39, 274–281.
  57. Martinsen, L.; Venanzetti, F.; Johnsen, A.; Sbordoni, V.; Bachmann, L. Molecular evolution of the pDo500 satellite DNA family in Dolichopoda cave crickets (Rhaphidophoridae). BMC Evol. Biol. 2009, 9, 301.
  58. Cafasso, D.; Chinali, G. An ancient satellite DNA has maintained repetitive units of the original structure in most species of the living fossil plant genus Zamia. Genome 2014, 57, 125–135.
  59. Navajas-Pérez, R.; de la Herrán, R.; Jamilena, M.; Lozano, R.; Ruiz Rejón, C.R.; Ruiz Rejón, M.; Garrido-Ramos, M.A. Reduced rates of sequence evolution of Y-linked satellite DNA in Rumex (Polygonaceae). J. Mol. Evol. 2005, 60, 391–399.
  60. Navajas-Pérez, R.; Quesada del Bosque, M.E.; Garrido-Ramos, M.A. Effect of location, organization and repeat-copy number in satellite-DNA evolution. Mol. Genet. Gen. 2009, 282, 395–406. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  61. Navajas-Pérez, R.; Schwarzacher, T.; Ruiz Rejón, M.; Garrido-Ramos, M.A. Characterization of RUSI, a telomere-associated satellite DNA, in the genus Rumex (Polygonaceae). Cytogenet. Genome Res. 2009, 124, 81–89.
  62. Navajas-Pérez, R.; Schwarzacher, T.; Ruiz Rejón, M.; Garrido-Ramos, M.A. Molecular cytogenetic characterization of Rumex papillaris, a dioecious plant with an XX/XY1Y2 sex chromosome system. Genetica 2009, 135, 87–93.
  63. Garrido-Ramos, M.A.; de la Herran, R.; Ruiz Rejón, M.; Ruiz Rejón, C. A satellite DNA of the Sparidae family (Pisces, Perciformes) associated with telomeric sequences. Cytogenet. Cell Genet. 1998, 83, 3–9.
  64. Garrido-Ramos, M.A.; Jamilena, M.; Lozano, R.; Ruiz Rejón, C.; Ruiz Rejón, M. The EcoRI centromeric satellite DNA of the Sparidae family (Pisces, Perciformes) contains a sequence motive common to other vertebrate centromeric satellite DNAs. Cytogenet. Cell. Genet. 1995, 71, 345–351.
  65. Garrido-Ramos, M.A.; de la Herran, R.; Jamilena, M.; Lozano, R.; Ruiz Rejón, C.; Ruiz Rejón, M. Evolution of centromeric satellite-DNA and its use in phylogenetic studies of the Sparidae family (Pisces, Perciformes). Mol. Phyl. Evol. 1999, 12, 200–204.
  66. De la Herrán, R.; Ruiz Rejón, C.; Ruiz Rejón, M.; Garrido-Ramos, M.A. The molecular phylogeny of the Sparidae (Pisces, Perciformes) based on two satellite DNA families. Heredity 2001, 87, 691–697.
  67. Robles, F.; de la Herrán, R.; Ludwig, A.; Ruiz Rejón, C.; Ruiz Rejón, M.; Garrido-Ramos, M.A. Evolution of ancient satellite DNAs in sturgeon genomes. Gene 2004, 338, 133–142.
  68. Árnason, Ú.; Widegren, B. Pinniped phylogeny enlightened by molecular hybridizations using highly repetitive DNA. Mol. Biol. Evol. 1986, 3, 356–365.

Photo
Snehal Kakde
Corresponding author

Womens College of Pharmacy, Pethvadgaon, Kolhapur

Photo
Sakshi Shinde
Co-author

Womens College of Pharmacy, Pethvadgaon, Kolhapur

Photo
Anushka Kamble
Co-author

Womens College of Pharmacy, Pethvadgaon, Kolhapur

Snehal Kakde, Sakshi Shinde, Anushka Kamble, Parthenogenesis: An Expansive Review of Asexual Reproduction in Plants and Animals, Int. J. of Pharm. Sci., 2025, Vol 3, Issue 5, 1320-1333. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15374663

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