Global customers are more concerned than ever with their looks, health, and well-being. Words like "organic," "natural," "no artificial preservatives," and "no animal ingredients" are getting a lot of attention. [1,2,3] Without a question, cosmetics have taken over the personal care market all over the world. Even if there is a lot of misunderstanding regarding its definition and application, it is not hyperbole to say that between 30% and 40% of all dermatologist prescriptions worldwide are for cosmeceuticals. [4] A recent development involves the use of vesicular drug delivery systems (vdds) for the delivery of cosmetics. Innovative vesicular drug delivery methods seek to route the active ingredient to the site of action and administer the medication at a rate determined by the body's needs throughout the course of treatment. Using vesicular systems, such liposomes and niosomes, is one method for boosting the skin penetration of medications and numerous compounds used in cosmetics. Liposomes are spheroid formations that can be unilamellar or multilamellar, and are made up of bilayers of phospholipids, among other lipid molecules.The limited skin penetration capabilities of traditional liposomes and niosomes, or chemicals in commercial formulations, could be addressed by elastic nanovesicles. Pharmaceuticals and cosmetics industries have both effectively used elastic nanovesicles.

Routes of permeation into the SC 

According to Ghaffarian and Muro, there exist three potential routes for the epidermal penetration of active substances. These are transcellular (intracellular) permeation through the corneocytes and intercellular lipid matrix, and appendageal (intercellular) penetration through the hair follicle or by the sebaceous and/or sweat glands. The latter approach provides a direct passage through the SC into the dermis below and the lowest layers of the epidermis. [5]

It is commonly acknowledged that the appendages (hair follicles and glands) contribute very little to epidermal permeation because they only make up a fraction of the skin (e.g., around 0.1% of the forearm skin. This suggests that the primary transepidermal pathway is made up of the transcellular route. Structure of skin is shown in fig 1. [6]

Mechanism Of Drug Release

The Novasome bilayers' array layout is not optimal. They have passageways (vacancies) via which enclosed components can move. For instance, periodic migration of active molecules in the core between bilayers causes the vacancies inside the bilayer to shift laterally through a series of haphazard leaps. As a result, through the liquid suspension separating the bilayers, active moieties are continuously released from the bilayers. Micro vesicles have a surface charge that can be zero, net positive, or net negative, which determines how active they are. For instance, negatively charged skin, mucous membranes, or hair can mix with positively charged microvesicles. [7] Similar to this, the Novasome vesicles' shape allows for a regulated release of the active ingredient through a sustained release mechanism.

Fig No. 1   Structure of the human skin layers

Vesicular System

When specific amphiphillic building blocks come into contact with water, a concentric lipid bilayer known as the vesicular system is created. This system is extremely organized. Bingham originally documented the genesis of these biological vesicles in 1965. Furthermore, they are currently utilized in cutting-edge, modern cosmetics; innovative drug delivery methods are also employed in herbal cosmetics. Particularly in recent decades, the development of such formulations has also led to a rise in the patenting of cosmetic substances and formulations. The most preferred innovative delivery systems are solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, and nanoemulsions. Vesicular delivery systems, such as liposomes, nanosomes, phytosomes, herbosomes, marinosomes, and oleosomes, are also among them. [8] Enhanced stability, increased efficacy, and a reduction in the allergenic potential of some herbal ingredients are some benefits of using such systems for herbal cosmetics. Because of its advantages, including prolonged release, less toxicity, enhanced stability, and higher bioavailability, liposomes are used in personal care products. In particular, they are utilized to encapsulate vitamins, antioxidants, and natural plant extract in a lot of anti-aging treatments.

Why Do We Employ VDDS?

Because medications only penetrate a limited amount of cells, conventional chemotherapy is ineffective in treating intracellular infections. To address the issue of drug degradation and/or drug dosage degradation, decrease undesirable side effects of traditional and controlled release drug delivery methods, and increase bioavailability at the site of disease.

Types of VDDS:

The targeted vesicles are classified on the basis of their composition.

a) Lipoidal biocarriers

b) Non-lipoidal biocarriers

 a. Lipoidal biocarriers

1. Liposomes

2. Emulosomes

3. Enzymosomes

4. Sphingosomes

5. Ethosomes

6. Transferosomes

7. Pharmacosomes

b. Non-lipoidal biocarriers:

1. Niosomes

2. Bilosomes

3. Aquasomes

Vesicular carriers in Cosmecuetical

Since ancient times, cosmeceuticals have employed bioactive substances derived from plants for a range of skin, lip, hair, and nail care procedures. These treatments have been shown to be useful in the fight against psoriasis, photoaging, inflammation, hair loss, and UV toxicity. [9] In order to achieve higher solubility, stability, bioavailability, and functionality of cosmetic ingredients, numerous delivery systems have been successfully developed over the past few years to protect sensitive phytochemicals of plant extracts from environmental stresses (e.g., oxygen, heat, UV, and ionic strength). An overview of the four main types—vesicle, particle, emulsion, and fibrous systems—as well as the most recent developments in innovative carriers for the dermocosmetic delivery of plant elements were presented in this paper.

Nanophytosomes

Another cutting-edge technology is nanophytosomes. Particularly for plant polyphenolics, these microbeads improve the skin's bioavailability of phyto bioactive substances and have a variety of medicinal uses, including skin care and cosmetic purposes. Chemicals, extending the compound's useful life. Phytosomes, either as specific bioactive components or as crude extracts obtained from plants, are widely employed in the cosmeceutical industry for both cosmetic and medicinal purposes. Extracts from Glycyrrhiza glabra and Citrus auranticum have recently been used in skin aging research as well as the creation of phytosomes. A photo-reactivating enzyme that is derived from the aquatic plant Anacystis nidulans is released by photosomes, which are added to sun care products to protect skin that has been exposed to the sun. Upon activation by light, photosomes repair DNA damage to cells, thereby mitigating immunological suppression and the promotion of cancer.

Nanoliposomes

When it comes to phytobioactive ingredients in cosmeceuticals, liposomes work well. Liposome-containing products improve the appearance and protection of the skin. Nano liposomes typically have a spherical shape, a single or several lamellar structures, and a size of a few nanometers. When delivering phyto-based chemicals to the dermal layer, liposomes work quite well. Cosmeceutical products that contain both synthetic and phytobioactive ingredients, such as skin moisturizers, hair creams, and antiaging creams, use nanoliposomes. The most well-known method of cosmetic delivery is liposomes. These are synthetic, submicroscopic, spherical vesicles that range in diameter from 25 to 5000 nm. Amphiphilic molecules invariably make up vesicles. One or more bimolecular phospholipid sheets, each separated from the others by aqueous layers, surround an aqueous cavity in the center of the structure. Artificial phospholipid membranes called liposomes can help active principles penetrate through the stratum corneum more easily. Following the fortunate discovery that phospholipids have a strong affinity for specific kinds of flavonoids, a new class of molecules known as "phytosomes" have been created by complexing with polar plant derivatives such glycyrrhetinic acid, catechin, quercetin, and escin. From a chemical perspective, pure phospholipid and pure active ingredients form complexes to form phytosomes.

Nanoniosomes

Since niosomes have several advantages over liposomes, including increased stability, improved skin penetration, minimal toxicity, and greater protection of the bioactive substances, they are widely employed in the cosmeceutical industry.  The efficiency of a niosome increases with decreasing size; their sizes range from nanometer to micrometer. Smaller, unilamellar structures between 10 and 100 nm in size are known as nanoniosomes.197–200 Niosomes are widely employed in the oral treatment of illnesses and in the skin delivery of antioxidants such ascorbic acid, resveratrol, and ellagic acid. Niosomes are non-ionic surfactant vesicles that can be made of saccharide diester, polyoxyethylene alkyl ether, or polyoxyethylene alkyl ester. The oil covers the skin's surface evenly, and as the water in a continuous phase evaporates, vesicles pierce the stratum corneum in fragmented form. Because of the oily layer, the end effect is a unique touch sensation, freshness, even essence, hydration, and a sense of protection.

Nanoethosomes, Glycerosomes, And Hyalurosomes

Modified liposomes, namely ethanol, glycerol, and sodium hyaluronate, are called after the phospholipid-containing chemicals they contain. They are only utilized in the cosmeceutical industries for their therapy and cosmetic treatments after being altered to improve the distribution of the active substances to the skin. [10, 11]

Pharmacosomes

Pharmacosomes are amphiphilic lipid vesicular systems that contain drug-bound phospholipid complexes. Pharmacon means drug and Soma means carrier, therefore Pharmacosomes means drug carriers. The system is constructed by attaching medications to carriers. Drug colloidal dispersions form a covalent link with lipids. Because it is made up of amphiphilic prodrugs, it is simple to obtain high drug loading and very minimal drug leakage. enhances interfacial tensions, which enhances contact area and bioavailability. [12]

Cosmetic Application of Liposomes 

Liposomes can function as both carriers of cosmeceutical ingredients and active agents themselves. When skin is eczema-affected or injured due to a lack of moisture, empty liposomes can strongly interact with skin lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates, assisting the skin in returning to its normal state and allowing the stratum corneum to full fill its defensive function properly. When they are used as carriers for active ingredient delivery, they have a multi-function meaning that, in addition to the ingredients' own effect, they may improve penetration, solubility, or stability, cause longevity of effect and separation of a substance from the environment, target the ingredient to the desired site of action, reduce toxicity, increase control over pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, and make the product more cost-effective. Furthermore, these tiny vesicular spheres are enclosed by a hydrophobic lipid bilayer. [13] Phospholipids are a key component of the liposome lipid bilayer and are GRAS (generally recognized as safe) substances, resulting in minimal side effects. Liposome (some manufacturers use the name "nanosomes") encapsulation shields the medicine against metabolic degradation while also allowing for the regulated release of its bioactive ingredients. These are ideal for delivering medicinal compounds having hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties. Their size ranges from 20 nm to several micrometers, which impacts their targeting efficacy, and they may have unilamellar or multilamellar structures.These can facilitate penetration, overcome solubility limitations, increase stability, and cause longer-lasting effects.

Make the product economical. When we use liposomes, we strive to put little amounts of stuff in small packages. This reduces the amount of raw materials required on one side and another. By miniaturizing the substance and its carrier, we increase the surface-to-volume ratio, resulting in greater efficacy. The more efficient the product, the more cost-effective it is. Furthermore, having control over kinetic, dynamic, and targeted delivery allows the product to be more cost effective.

Method Of Preparation Of Liposome

This figure shows how liposomes is been prepared in the industry for using it appropriately in the drugs for their wanted effect.

       
           
       
    Fig. No. 3  Method Of Preparation Of Liposome

Niosomes

History Of Niosomes

Niosomes were originally launched in the cosmetics business. Nonionic surfactants are favored because they have reduced irritating power, which decreases in order from cationic to anionic, ampholytic, and nonionic. Nonionic surfactants are made up of polar and non-polar segments, as shown in Fig. 4, and have strong interfacial activity. When hydrated, they create a bilayer and thereby entrap both hydrophilic and hydrophobic medicines. The first report of non-ionic surfactant vesicles originated from cosmetic applications developed by L'Oreal.

Niosomes were developed as an alternative controlled drug delivery technology to liposomes to address issues with sterilizing, large-scale manufacture, and stability. The first niosome report was issued by a cosmetic firm, and other cosmetic and pharmaceuticals industries soon followed suit. [14]

       
           
       
    Fig. No. 4 Structure of niosomes

Applications Of Niosomes 

There are numerous reports of the use of niosomal drug delivery for a variety of pharmacological substances. They serve as carriers for several

 substances, including haemoglobin, proteins, peptides, and vaccinations. Niosomes are widely used in topical drug delivery because they provide

site-specific action, reduced side effects, low dose

several times more than the currently available

formulations for the treatment of skin diseases, and

increased patient compliance. Topical delivery of NSAIDs and other drugs is the best way to avoid gastric disturbances. [15]

Fig. No. 5 The effect of the nature of the encapsulated drug on the properties of the noisome dispersion.

Niosomes in Cosmetics 

The term "noisome" refers to nano-vesicles made by basically non-ionic surfactant self-assembly, either integrated with or without cholesterol or lipids. These unilamellar or multilamellar vesicles are made up of an aqueous solution comprising lipophilic and solute components, which is surrounded by a membrane that is produced by the bilayer organization of surfactant macromolecules. [16] Small unilamellar vesicles range from 0.025–0.05 µm, large unilamellar vesicles range up to 0.10 µm, and multilamellar vesicles range >0.05 µm when looking at size range.  Because of its excellent surface adherence, bioavailability, higher skin penetration, increased stability of encapsulated active substances, and consistent release properties, noisome has become an increasingly important carrier system for cosmetic actives. Noisy formulations, as opposed to traditional ones, are less toxic and enable regulated delivery of the active ingredients, which is advantageous for skin-soothing and tanning treatments. Due to their advantageous properties, including antioxidant and anti-aging properties, many biologically active compounds originating from plants are highly sought after for usage in cosmetic products. [17] N-acetyl glucosamine niosomes are reported to be manufactured topically and have enhanced skin penetration. Because N-acetyl glucosamine (NAG) inhibits the thyrosinase enzymes in melanocytes, it has been explored as a therapy for hyperpigmentation disorders. As required in hyperpigmentation diseases, prepared niosomal formulations demonstrated an enhanced degree of medication localization in the skin. Topical NAG-niosomes can also minimize systemic absorption, which in turn reduces negative effects.For topical application, 38 gallic acids containing elastic and non-elastic niosomes were prepared. It was noted that the non-elastic niosomes demonstrated a slight increase in entrapment efficiency while the elastic niosomes demonstrated increased skin penetration, which will be advantageous for

topical anti-aging application.

Novasome

Characteristics of novasome  [ 18]

The important properties of novasomes are as follows:

• It can remain stable over a wide pH range, from 2 to 13.

• It remains stable between 0 and 100 degrees Celsius, or from below the boiling point of    water to above the temperature of liquid nitrogen.

• It guarantees a homogeneous size distribution and consequently a uniform drug or active   ingredient content.

• They can carry a negative, positive, or neutral charge.

• They have the advantage of offering more active ingredients in a restricted volume.

• One can fill up to 80–85% of the inner amorphous center with a pharmaceutical.

• Because of the multibilayer vesicles, the center core has a big capacity.

• It keeps the skin from being too dry.

• Its surface may have a neutral, positive, or negative charge.

• It provides site-specific and targeted medication delivery.

• The release rate is consistent; they have the capacity to retain and release a sizable amount of hydrophilic substances.

• Depending on the various conditions of the vesicle's surface load and the skin's thickness, they may stick to the hair shaft or the skin.

       
           
       
    Fig. No. 6 Diagrammatic representation showing the structure of novasome

Proniosome

Because of their special qualities of promethiosome gels it can be employed as efficient delivery methods for cosmetics and cosmeceuticals. [19]

Cosmeceutical Applications of Ethosomes

Applying ethosomes to cosmeceuticals has the benefit of improving transdermal permeability, particularly in elastic forms, in addition to increasing the stability of the cosmetic chemicals and reducing skin irritation from irritating cosmetic chemicals. To achieve these benefits of elastic vesicles for cosmeceutical applications, the primary elements to be taken into account are their sizes and compositions. Antioxidants, however, are often unstable and can be destroyed by exposure to light. [20]

Flavonoids, vitamin C, and vitamin E are some of these antioxidants. One of the main exogenous lipophilic antioxidants that is often present in tissues is vitamin E. Applying it topically can improve the skin's defenses against external oxidants. Vitamin E is proven to defend against UV rays, some harmful chemicals, and physical agents. It is also reported to reduce the development of lipid peroxides in the epidermis when added to cosmetics and several dermatological products.

Transfersomes

Transfersomes are proprietary lipid aggregations that may easily pass through pores or other biological constrictions that would confine other particles of equal size. These pliable vesicles can stretch up to 500 nm in length to pass through the SC barrier. This capability is related to the transfersome membrane's self-adaptability and exceptional deformability. Transfersomes and ethosomes containing edge acti vators, such as surfactants, and penetration enhancers, such as alcohols, limonene, oleic acid, and polyols, have been found to impact the characteristics of these vesicles and their permeation of the SC.  Summary of Commercially available delivery system in Table 1.

Applications Of Elastic Nanovesicles In Cosmeceuticals

Applying nanovesicles to cosmeceuticals has the benefit of improving transdermal absorption, particularly in elastic forms, in addition to increasing the stability of the cosmetic chemicals and reducing skin irritation for those unpleasant compounds. To achieve these benefits of elastic vesicles for cosmeceutical applications, the primary elements to be taken into account are their sizes and compositions. [22] Applying a variety of antioxidants topically is one way to reduce oxidative damage to the skin for cosmeceutical and cosmetic purposes. However, most antioxidants are not stable and can be broken down by light exposure. Flavonoids, vitamin C, and vitamin E are some of these antioxidants. One of the main exogenous lipophilic antioxidants that is often present in tissues is vitamin E. Applying it topically can improve the skin's defences against external oxidants. It has been shown that adding vitamin E to cosmetic and several dermatological treatments reduces the lipid peroxides produced in the epidermis and provides protection against UV rays, harmful

chemicals, and physical agents.

Application Nanoparticle:

Sunscreen

The purpose of sunscreen is to shield the skin from the damaging effects of exposure to the sun. Materials that prevent sun damage include titanium dioxide (TiO2) and zinc oxide (ZnO). In addition to acting as physical UV blockers on its own, SLN can enhance UV protection when used in conjunction with organic sunscreens like 2-hydroxy-4-methoxy benzophenone, which permits a decrease in the UV absorber concentration. Herein lies the role of nanoparticles. Among the numerous creative applications of nanotechnology is the development of better sunscreens. ZnO or TiO2 nanoparticle-based sunscreens are more aesthetically pleasing, clear, and less oily and odorous. [23]

Increase of skin hydration and elasticity:

 After dermal application of SLN, NLC, or formulations containing them, skin hydration increases due to the decrease in trans-epidermal water loss (TEWL) brought on by occlusion. An in vivo investigation revealed that an o/w cream containing SLN improved skin hydration more than an o/w cream without SLN. Using a tape stripping test, it was found that coenzyme Q10-loaded SLN and NLC had greater skin penetration than nanoemulsion, liquid paraffin, or isopropanol, respectively. The oil content of NLC affects both the amount and depth of penetration into the skin using the fluorescent color Nile red as a marker.

The majority of cosmeceuticals on the market are antiaging treatments, which are produced using nanotechnology. L'Oreal promises that its Revitalift anti-wrinkle cream, which contains ProRetinol. A nanosomes, would quickly rejuvenate skin and lessen the appearance of wrinkles. This product is an example of how the company uses nanotechnology. Retinol use can improve collagen production and increase epidermal water content, hyperplasia, and cell renewal.

Characterization

The physicochemical qualities, stability, release profile, skin interactions, and dermocosmetic usefulness of encapsulated cosmetic components are significantly influenced by their structure, size, and content. The safety assessment of components is crucial for skincare products that come into direct touch with the human body. This table no. 3 provides a summary of the attributes and characterisation methods linked to performance. [24]