Immunomodulatory Polysaccharides from Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms: Sources, Mechanisms, and Therapeutic Potential

Since ancient times, mushrooms have been utilized as food supplements, dietary ?bre, and nutraceuticals due to their high nutritional content. Edible wild mushrooms offer immune-modulating qualities, according to research on contemporary medicine. Among the many metabolites found in mushrooms, polysaccharides are thought to have the most potential for in?uencing both the innate and adaptive immune systems1

In recent years, polysaccharides separation and analysis have made signi?cant improvements. With further research on the structure and biological function of polysaccharides, comprehension of physicochemical properties, structure characterization and potential polysaccharides mechanisms will be more clearly demonstrated. Given that a variety of diseases may be effectively treated by natural sources of polysaccharides. It is crucial to review the research on polysaccharides2.

Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides are a structurally varied family of macromolecules made up of polymers of monosaccharide residues joined by glycosidic linkages. Interestingly, polysaccharides offer the potential for structural ?exibility. When compared to other bio-polymers like proteins and nucleic acids, they have the greatest capacity for transmitting biological information due to their ?exibility3      

The nucleotides in nucleic acids and the amino acids in proteins can only connect in one way, whereas the monosaccharide units in polysaccharides can link at several places to produce a variety of branching or linear structures. Plants, algae, and microorganisms like bacteria and fungus contain polysaccharides, which are the most common naturally occurring macromolecular polymers4

Immunostimulatory polysaccharides are substances that enhance host response mechanisms by interacting with the immune system. It has been demonstrated that several polysaccharides, such as mannans, fucoidans, and glucans, have immunostimulatory qualities5.

These polysaccharides' structural features, such as their molecular weight, branching properties, conformation, monosaccharide and glycosidic-linkage composition, and functional groups, are assumed to be responsible for their immunostimulatory actions. Designing immunostimulatory polysaccharides with potential therapeutic or health-improving bene?ts requires establishing structure-function correlations using pure, characterized polysaccharides and speci?c structural modi?cations.

Immunomodulatory effects of polysaccharides

There has been a lot of interest in the potential of immunomodulatory mushroom polysaccharides to display various biological activities and impact the immune system. India, a nation renowned for its rich biodiversity, is home to a wide variety of mushrooms that have long been utilized in traditional medicine. This paper provides a comprehensive analysis of the immunomodulatory properties of polysaccharides produced from five mushrooms: Volvorielea volvocae, Grifola frondosa, Tremella fuciformis, Pleurotus sajor-caju, and Reishi. The goal of the review is to provide a comprehensive analysis of the immunomodulatory properties of the polysaccharides from these five Indian mushrooms, highlighting their potential as therapeutic agents for the prevention and management of a variety of diseases. The assessment also looks at the current state of the field's research and identifies areas that need more investigation7

MUSHROOM POLYSACCHARIDES

(History& its role in immunomodulation)

Mushroom polysaccharides are rich in vitamins, minerals, proteins, and carbohydrates while being low in fat and calories. They include a range of bioactive compounds with signi?cant health advantages, particularly for bolstering the immune system, including terpenes, sterols, ceramides, and phenolic substances. These polysaccharides can be classi?ed as either homoglycans, which comprise a single kind of monosaccharide, or heteroglycans, which comprise multiple types.

In the late 1960s, lentinan, a ?-1,3-D-glucan with B-1,6 branches, was demonstrated to have immunomodulatory and anticancer properties8

Additional polysaccharides that are sold as biological response modi?ers (BRMs), including schizophyllan and krestin, have also shown similar results. They have immunomodulatory mechanisms. However, because variations in molecular weight, branching, and sugar composition affect their bioactivity, processes are still poorly understood9

Mushroom Polysaccharides' Mechanisms of Action in Immunomodulation.

1.         Immune Cell Activation: Polysaccharides found in mushrooms, such as ?-glucans, have the ability to stimulate immune cells including natural killer (NK) cells and macrophages.

2.         2. Improving Immune Response: These polysaccharides can promote the synthesis of different cytokines, which are signaling molecules that aid in immune response coordination. This comprises both anti-inflammatory (which lessens inflammation) and pro-inflammatory (which increases inflammation) cytokines.

3. Modifying Macrophage Function: Polysaccharides have the ability to change the roles that macrophages play. Depending on what the body needs, they can stimulate

macrophages to become either proinflammatory (M1) or anti-inflammatory (M2). The body's immunological response is balanced as a result.

Interaction with Immune Receptors: Certain immune cell receptors, such as Dectin-1, recognize polysaccharides. A number of signaling pathways that strengthen the immune response are set off by this identification.

4.Reduction of Inflammation: Mushroom polysaccharides can help reduce excessive inflammation, which is advantageous in situations like inflammatory bowel disease and allergies, by stimulating the generation of anti-inflammatory cytokines and controlling macrophage differentiation.

5.Gut Health: Many polysaccharides from mushrooms pass through the stomach undigested and enter the intestines undamaged. They can boost general gut health and immune function there by stimulating immune cells in the gut.

In conclusion, mushroom polysaccharides are useful in encouraging health and preventing illness since they activate immune cells, strengthen the immunological response, and reduce inflammation10

MOA OF MUSHROOM POLYSACCHARIDES IN IMMUNOMODULATION:

Induced Immunomodulation: Mushrooms contain polysaccharides, particularly B glucans, which interact with the immune system to cause significant immunomodulatory effects. Immune cells such as dendritic cells and macrophages have a receptor called Dectin-1 that recognizes them and initiates the Dectin-1 signaling pathway, which in turn activates kinases including Raf-1 and Syk. The cytokines and chemokines that are generated in reaction to this stimulation include TNF-a, IL-1?, IL-6, and IL12, which further encourage immune cell activation.

The development of macrophages, particularly M2 macrophages, which are connected to anti-inflammatory responses, can also be impacted by the polysaccharides included in mushrooms. When these polysaccharides are taken orally, they can increase the production of chemokines and cytokines in the gut lamina propria, which strengthens immune responses. At the same time, anti-inflammatory cytokines like IL-10 are produced, which lessen inflammatory reactions10

1.         VOLVARIELLA VOLVACEA:

Origin:

The fruiting bodies and mycelium of Volvariella volvacea, often known as the straw mushroom, contain a variety of polysaccharides, including mannans and glucans. These polysaccharides are produced by the mushroom's saprophytic growth on decomposing organic materials, particularly straw and agricultural leftovers, which offers the nutrients needed for its development.8 These polysaccharides contribute to the nutritional value of the mushroom, have structural roles in the cell walls, and contain bioactive properties like immunomodulatory and antioxidant activities that make them helpful in both medicine and cuisine.11

Biological components:

Volvariella volvacea ( straw mushroom), is a nutrient-dense fungus with a number of bioactive components that support its health benefits. Polysaccharides, especially ?-glucans, which are known for their immunomodulatory actions and boost the immunological response by stimulating macrophages and other immune cells, are among its main components. The essential amino acids required for protein synthesis and general health are found in the mushroom, making it a good source of proteins as well. It also includes a number of B vitamins, including pantothenic acid, niacin, and riboflavin, which are crucial for energy metabolism and the maintenance of healthy skin and neurones. There are also essential minerals that support a number of physiological processes, including potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, and iron. Additionally, Volvariella volvacea is a rich source of phenolic compounds with antioxidant qualities that help shield cells from inflammation and oxidative damage. When exposed to UV light, ergosterol, a precursor to vitamin D2, can also be converted, supporting immunological and bone health. Finally, lectins are bioactive proteins that may have antibacterial and anticancer properties, among other advantages. Overall, Volvariella volvacea is a valuable food source with possible health benefits due to its wide variety of biological components13

Mechanism of action:

The binding of B-glucan polysaccharide, which is produced from the volvariella volvacea mushroom, to pattern recognition receptors is the immunomodulatory mode of action.

(PRRs) on immune cell surfaces, including scavenger receptors, CR3, and Dectin-1.

This interaction initiates several cellular processes, such as phagocytosis, endocytosis, and the release of inflammatory cytokines.

In particular, (1→3)-B-Glucan starts a signal when it binds to Dectin-1 transduction pathway downstream, which in turn triggers immune cells to produce a series of biological reactions, such as DC maturation, respiratory burst induction, phagocytosis and endocytosis of (1→3)-BGlucan, and the generation of other inflammatory cytokines.

Additionally, binding of (1→3)-B-Glucan to CR3 enhances phagocytosis and the generation of inflammatory cytokines by promoting contact between target and

effector cells. The elimination of foreign objects and apoptosis the scavenger receptor helps with nuclear fragmentation, and when (1→3)-B-glucan attaches to it, urokinase-type plasminogen is activated, which releases inflammatory cytokines. All things considered, the binding of (1→3)-?-glucan to PRRs on the surface of immune cells initiates a complex series of biological reactions that enhance humoral immunity and activate TLR2, resulting in the production of inflammatory cytokines and the activation of immunological cells14 15

Extraction process:

Extraction of polysaccharides from mushrooms and structural analysis: Extraction techniques are affected by the polysaccharides present in mushroom cell walls, including chitin, a and ?-glucans, and glycoproteins. Water-soluble polysaccharides are produced by heating water extraction, while hot alkali extraction using 5% NaOH releases those that are insoluble in water. The extraction method involves weighing powdered mushrooms and mixing them with various solvents, such as water, ethanol, acid, and alkali. The water and ethanol extractions were incubated at various temperatures and times using a 1:20 (w/v) ratio. Acid extraction employed a 3.8% HCI solution that was incubated at 30°C for 300 minutes, while alkaline extraction used 4% NaOH at 80°C for 60 minutes. After precipitating the crude extracts with 95% ethanol, they were dried at 60°C until they reached a constant weight, and their dry weight was noted for further examination. After that, the extracts were kept at 4°C16

To Determine the Beta-Glucan Content: The amount of ?-glucan in mushroom samples was determined using a specific ?-glucan kit (K-YBGL, Megazyme). After hydrolysing the samples for 45 minutes at 30 °C with 37% hydrochloric acid heated to 100 °C for two hours before being neutralised with potassium hydroxide. After that, glucose was liberated by enzymatic hydrolysis using exo-1,3-Bglucanase and B-glucosidase in a sodium acetate buffer at pH 5.0 for an hour. The glucose was then measured spectrophotometrically at 510 nm. The amount of a-glucan was measured using invertase and amyloglucosidase in a similar way. By subtracting the aglucan content from the total glucan content, the ?-glucan content was calculated as a percentage of the dry weight of the mushroom.

2.         PLEUROTUS SAJOR-CAJU:

 Origin:

Oyster mushrooms, which may be found everywhere, are included in the genus Pleurotus.They thrive in tropical and temperate climates and feed on decaying organic material, particularly wood. Important In many different kinds of environments, populations of Pleurotus species have been discovered.

Kenya has a variety of ecosystems, including the Kakamega Forest, which is one of the country's most diverse, the few surviving rainforests, the biodiverse Arabuko Sokoke Woodland, and the high-altitude forests of Mount Kenya. The environmental significance of Pleurotus species, and their genetic makeup highlights their potential as edible fungi for extended use in these settings. However, the genetic makeup of wild populations, underscoring the necessity for additional study in order to completely comprehend their economic and biotechnological prospect.

BIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES:

Oyster mushrooms are rich in bioactive compounds. Pleurotus ostreatus has both nutritional and medicinal value. The quantity of their polysaccharide content varies from 57. 6 to 81. 8 mg per 100 grams of dried material comprises immunomodulatory glucans such pleuran. There are more steroids, such as ergosterol derivatives, that are essential for fungal cell membranes. Flavonoids such as quercetin and gallic acid are among the phenolic constituents of the oils found in mushrooms include linoleic acid and 3-octanone alkaloids glutamic acid is the most common of the tannins, saponins, and antioxidants additional members. Importantly, the fruiting bodies contain antioxidant compounds that have in addition to the hypolipidemic medicine lovastatin, significant health benefits are seen18

HOW IT WORKS:

Polysaccharides from mushrooms, notably those found in the display significant immunomodulatory effects in species such as Pleurotus ostreatus. They activate signaling pathways that enhance immune responses by interacting with Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and Dectin-l, which are found on immune cells. These polysaccharides grow in number the capacity of macrophages and dendritic cells to present antigens and produce pro- by facilitating their activation and proliferation of inflammatory cytokines. They advocate for an anti-tumor Thl response, which boosts the production of cytokines that attract immune cells to tumor sites. Additionally, by raising the amount of antigen that is presented, they enhance antigen presentation. The expression of MHC Class II and co-stimulatory molecules on dendritic cells. By inhibiting immunosuppressive variables and fostering M1 macrophage polarization, Polysaccharides also regulate the tumor microenvironment and improve anti-tumor immunity.19

EXTRACTION PROCEDURE:

The goal of creating a process that integrates sample preparation and extraction was to evaluate the impact of heat treatment on the bioactive constituents of Pleurotus sajor-caju. The fresh fruiting bodies were split into five groups of 100 g each, and four of the groups where the fifth sample was subjected to heat treatments at 100°C and 121°C for 15 and 30 minutes, respectively. As a control, the group was left unheated. Every group had 20 g of samples incubated using 200 mL of 95% methanol at 150 rpm throughout the extraction procedure. The resulting liquid was filtered and concentrated using a rotary evaporator at 40°C extracts. The Folin-Ciocalteu technique, which entailed combining 0. 1 mL of the sample with the reagent, was used diluting the sample with the reagent and then incubating it with sodium bicarbonate, the total phenolic content (TPC) was measured. To compare the effects of heat. After treatment of phenolic compounds, the absorbance was measured at 725 nm, and the findings were as follows: expressed as milligrams of gallic acid equivalents per gram of dry sample weight.20

3) GANODERMA LUCIDUM:

ORIGIN:

For a long time, Japan and China have used the Oriental fungus Ganoderma lucidum, and there are many other Asian nations to support liftspan and good health. It resembles a huge, black mushroom with a glossy surface and a woody feel. The word luteidus, which describes the mushroom's surface as shiny or brilliant in Latin as having a varnished appearance. In China, lingzhi is the common name for G. lucidum, but the Japanese names for the Ganodermataceae family are reishi and mannentake.

The Chinese word for herb of spiritual potency is Lingzhi, which is a combination of spiritual and medicinal properties, the core of immortality and power. It is seen as a representation of success and good health, divine power, and longevity. Among cultivated mushrooms, G. lucidum stands out because it is unique in that its therapeutic value exceeds its dietary value21

BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS:

By weight water makes up around 90% of the majority of mushrooms. The other 10% consists of 2–8% fat, 3–28% carbohydrates, 3–32% fiber, 8-10% protein, and 10% fiber. 10% ash, with few vitamins and minerals. Most of the minerals are discovered in a mineral known as potassium calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, selenium, and iron,copper, zinc, and other elements (Borchers et al. 1999).According to Mau,Lin. and Chen's 2001 research ; The mushroom has 1. 8% ash, 26-28% protein, and 26-28% protein in the non-volatile portion of G. hueidum.

 The percentages of carbohydrates 18%, crude fat 3 -5 %, crude fibre , and crude protein are between 7 and 8%.

In addition to these, there is a wide variety of bioactive compounds in mushrooms, terpenoids that include steroids, phenols, nucleotides, and their byproducts are included glycoproteins (protein and polysaccharide).

All of the essential amino acids may be found in proteins from mushrooms, which are especially rich in lysine22

MECHANISM OF ACTION:

Natural killer (NK) cells, lymphocytes, and polysaccharides like -D-glucans are all stimulated macrophages, enhancing their activity and replication,Cytokine Production: Interferons, interleukins, and TNF-a are examples of cytokines created by activated immune cells, which mediate and control immunological reactions, and promote inflammation.23

Receptor Binding: β-d-glucans bind to complement and other immune cell receptors initiate intracellular communication that creates immune cells by using receptor type three (CR3) active.

Ligand-receptor complex internalization: The ligand- becomes bound as a result of this binding, which causes the following to occur:

The receptor complex is internalized, which triggers routes like nuclear factor kappa.

B(NF-KB), which is necessary for the transcription of immunological genes.24

Biological Response Induction: Better immune cell activation enhances defense against infections by strengthening the immune response and promoting cell division.

Impact on immunosuppression: Some of the chemicals found in Ganoderma may also have this effect. Immunosuppressive properties that may be useful in conditions such as autoimmune diseases where too much immune activation is harmful25

Positive effect on health : The immunomodulatory effect of Ganoderma contributes to its production. Anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory benefits, which help treat disease and boost the effectiveness of other treatments while decreasing side effects.26

EXTRACTION PROCESS:

The experiment setup employed a precipitation unit and an extraction unit to isolate the active ingredients of Ganoderma lucidum. Following the crushing of the G. lucidum was cooled to approximately 278 K for particles smaller than 2 mm. Distilled at high temperatures, a high-pressure Shimadzu pump pushed water into a stainless steel tube preheater.The Liquid the Chromatography pump for LC-6AD. After that, before entering a, the water was heated. A 10 mL reactor containing 1. 0 g of the mushroom. To remove air and add moisture to the material, distilled water was pushed through the device prior to extraction. Following that, the system was pressurized to the optimum extraction pressures, maintained a consistent temperature, and to ensure stable conditions, pressure monitoring was conducted. By adhering to safety our methodical approach to the processes aimed to improve the extraction efficiency of bioactive components in G. lucidum. 27

5.TREMELLA FUCIFORMIS:

ORIGIN:

The mycelium, fermentation broth, and fruiting body of the fungus are the sources of the polysaccharides present in Tremella fuciformis mushrooms. Mushrooms, also known as "Yiner" or "Baimuer" in Chinese, are a common edible fungus farmed and consumed in Asia.The tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, such as China, Japan. The mushroom Tremella fuciformis is found throughout Southeast Asia. It is commonly planted in these regions due to its medicinal properties and edible fruiting body 28.

Production and Growth:

The mushroom Tremella fuciformis is commonly grown in Asia on a variety of substrates, including straw, sawdust, and wood logs. The fungus grows for three to six months before. 29

.

BIOACTIVE COMPONENTS:

Numerous bioactive components of the fungus Tremella fuciformis are known to exist. Polysaccharides like Tremella polysaccharide (TPS), which has been demonstrated to have anticancer, immunomodulatory, and antioxidant qualities, have been identified as the primary bioactive components of Tremella fuciformis. The polysaccharide composition of Tremella fuciformis has been found to consist of multiple monosaccharides, including D-mannose, D-xylose, D-glucuronide, and L-fructose. Tremella fuciformis chemical makeup is as follows: 30

.

Table no 5.1  Tremella fuciformis’s main bioactive constituents30

MECHANISM OF ACTION :

Tremella fuciformis polysaccharides have been shown to strengthen the immune system by:

1)         Increasing the phagocytic and active activity of macrophages.

2)         A rise in the production of cytokines (TNF-a, IL-1κ, and IL-6).

3)         Regulating the expression of genes linked to immune responses.

4)         Modifying the activity of immune cells such as T and B lymphocytes.

Tremella fuciformis polysaccharides have been shown to have an impact on many signalling mechanisms that control the production of cytokines and other immune components, including:

1. NF-kB signalling is a system that regulates immune responses and inflammation.

2. The MAPK signalling pathway is one pathway that controls both cell division and proliferation.

3. The regulation of cell survival and metabolism is linked to the PI3K/AKT signalling system.

Immunomodulatory benefits of Tremella polysaccharides fuciformis have been shown to include:

1)         Strengthening the body's defences against infections and cancer.

2)         Reducing inflammation and oxidative stress.

3)         Regulating the Thl to Th2 immune response ratio. 31

EXTRACTION PROCESS:

Dried Tremella fuciformis, purchased commercially from Xi'an, China, was triturated and then cooked for four hours in distilled water. The filtrate was concentrated using a rotary evaporator, and the protein was subsequently extracted using the Sevag method. Crude polysaccharides were produced by precipitating the mixture with three volumes of 959 ethanol at 4 °C for 24 hours after centrifugation.

The extracted acidic polysaccharide, which is primarily composed of fucose, xylose, mannose, and glucuronic acid, achieved a total sugar recovery of 93.6% using ion exchange chromatography and freeze-drying.

The polysaccharide's mass ratio of approximately 6.8:1:1.5:0.6 indicates that mannose is the main chain, with branches from glucuronic acid and xylos fucose. With a molecular weight of 1.86 10^6 Da, these polysaccharides are suitable for controlled drug 32 33

6. GRIFOLA FRONDASA:

ORIGIN

In Japan, maitake is commonly used to refer to Grifola frondosa, a Basidiomycetes fungus that is a member of the Polyporales order and Grifolaceae family. "Maitake" means "dancing mushroom" in this context. This edible mushroom typically grows around the stumps or trunks of broadleaf trees in temperate forests in northeastern Japan, eastern North America, Europe, and Asia. The first nation to artificially cultivate G. frondosa was Japan in the mid-1980s, employing three main methods: bottle culture, bag culture, and outdoor bed culture. Bag culture is the most prevalent of these in Japan due to its low cost, minimal space requirements, and ease of regulating the indoor climate. 34 35

BIOACTIVE COMPONENTS

Numerous biological components of the nutrient-rich fungus Grifola frondosa are well known for supporting its nutritional and therapeutic benefits. Protein (13–21%) and carbohydrates (70–80%) make up the majority of the fruiting body, which also contains 83–96% moisture and 4–17% dry matter. The primary sugar is trehalose, which has a higher total sugar content than its mycelium.

G. frondosa is a good source of free amino acids and contains approximately 18 different amino acids, including important ones. Its bioactive components include 47 polysaccharide fractions, of which the D-fraction and MD-fraction stand out for their immunomodulatory and anticancer properties.

 Additionally, bioactive proteins, peptides, and small molecules like fatty acids, ergosterols, and flavonoids have antibacterial, anti-cancer, and immune-stimulating properties. 36 37

MECHANISM OF ACTION

G. frondosa (G. frondosa) Polysaccharide Mechanism of Action (MOA) in Immunomodulation The polysaccharides in G. frondosa, particularly the D-fraction, greatly enhance immunological responses through a variety of mechanisms.38

Immune Cell Activation:

Macrophages: Activated by D-fraction, macrophages release more pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-12 and TNF-a, which enhances their ability to phagocytize pathogens or tumor cells and present antigens.

Natural Killer (NK) Cells: The D-fraction enhances NK cells' capacity to cytotoxically assault tumor cells by upregulating their expression of TNF-a and IFN-y.

Cytokine secretion.

G. frondosa contains polysaccharides that stimulate the production of critical cytokines, including interleukins and interferons, which facilitate communication between immune cells and support a coordinated immune response. For instance, polysaccharide GP11, 39 40 41 42

EXTRACTION PROCESS

Grifola frondosa, commonly known as maitake mushroom, is powdered and mixed with ultrapure water in a specific material-to-liquid ratio in order to extract polysaccharides. This mixture is then extracted using ultrasonography to boost the synthesis of polysaccharides. Following extraction, the filtrate is mixed with a 1:3 ratio of 100% ethanol, which leaves the polysaccharides to precipitate overnight at room temperature. Centrifugation is used to separate the precipitate from the mixture, and any moisture that remains is removed by vacuum drying it at 60°C. Deproteinization, ion exchange chromatography, and gel filtration chromatography are used to further purify the crude extract in order to create high-purity polysaccharides. FTIR and other characterization techniques are used to analyze the structure and chemical composition of the extracted polysaccharides.43 44

APPLICATIONS OF MUSHROOM POLYSACCHARIDES

1. Nutraceuticals and Dietary Supplements

2. The food sector 45

3. Medicines for the Treatment of Cancer

4. Cosmetics and Personal Care 46

5. Traditional Medical Care 47

6. Beneficial Drinks

7. Food for Animals 48

8. Biotechnology Use 49

9. Food Processing Textural Enhancers 50

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, there is a lot of potential for increasing immunity and advancing general health with the immunomodulatory polysaccharides derived from mushrooms such as Pleurotus sajor-caju, Ganoderma lucidum, Tremella fuciformis, Grifola frondosa, and Volvariella volvacea. This comprehensive analysis highlights the importance of these bioactive compounds, particularly B-glucans and polysaccharopeptides, in controlling immune responses and their therapeutic applications in a range of industries, including functional foods, pharmaceuticals, and dietary supplements.The complex and effective immunomodulatory processes of these polysaccharides are emphasised, including receptor interactions, cytokine production, and immune cell activation. The review also emphasises the need for additional research to better understand the structure-function relationships of these polysaccharides and enhance extraction methods in order to maximise their health benefits.Mushrooms present a significant opportunity to develop innovative health solutions, given the increasing global demand for natural and functional foods.investigating the full spectrum of applications for these polysaccharides, not only in traditional  as research progresses—not just in medicine but also in modern healthcare and nutrition. A multidisciplinary approach to optimise the potential of polysaccharides derived from mushrooms is supported by the analysis's findings, which could lead to advancements in disease preventive and treatment techniques.

Table no 7.1 comparative analysis of immunomodulatory mushrooms: