Dichrostachys Cinerea: A Comprehensive Review on its Phytochemical & Pharmacological Profile

More than two-thirds of the world's population still rely on traditional medicine for their healthcare needs. By combining traditional and western medical practices and applying current science and technology to support and advance traditional medicine, remarkable advancements have been accomplished in emerging nations like China and India. Ever since human civilization first emerged, plants have been one of the main suppliers of medicinal materials. Plants remain a key source of medications for both contemporary and traditional medicine worldwide, despite significant advancements in the field of allopathy during the 20th century. Plants are the source of about one-third of all medications. When bacteria and fungi are taken into account, plants account for more than 60% of all medications. Even with the tremendous advancements in synthetic drug development and the overwhelming influence of modern medicine, a sizable portion of the global population—80% of the approximately four billion people—cannot afford the products of the western pharmaceutical industry and must instead rely on traditional medicines, the majority of which are made from plant material. The WHO, which just put out an inventory of medicinal plants with over 20,000 species, is fully aware of this. The current trend is more "NATURAL" in everything. The amount and molecular makeup of components that are active in medicinal plants  offer value. In a broader sense, there is an increasing need for pharmaceuticals, food supplements, cosmetics, health goods, and medications made from plants, global market for medicinal plants.¹ Dichrostachys cinerea is a medium-sized, semi deciduous low thorny tree or shrub that is having bicoloured fragrant flowers and reaches a maximum height of eight feet with branches that end in spines. Dichrostachys cinerea grows on degraded soils. It can be drought-resistant and planted as a protective prickly hedge at times. It gets invasive and becomes an annoyance in certain areas when it produces impenetrable thickets.² Dichrostachys cinerea is widely found in forests across Africa, Australia, India, and portions of South East Asia.³ This plant grows across a large region in Ivory Coast that runs from north to south. This species widespread from Africa to Australia. This plant grows in heavy soils invade in distributed area. Every year, Dichrostachys cinerea plants of various ages can yield a large number of healthy seeds that will allow them to grow for more than five years.⁴

Taxonomy⁵

Table 1: Taxonomical classification of Dichrostachys cinerea

Vernacular Names⁶

Table 2: Vernacular names of. Dichrostachys cinerea

Distribution

Native: Cameroon, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Nigeria, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia Dichrostachys cinerea. It is found in Malaysia in regions with a severe seasonal climate, typically on poor, sometimes clayey soils, in grassland, brushwood, thickets, hedges, and teak forests. Forms dense hammocks in Senegal and Sudan on lateritic soils; in India, it grows in arid deciduous forests. It may be a sign of over grazing in regions with little rainfall. Though less tolerant of poor soils and typically not frost hardy, they are unquestionably drought resistant. It cannot withstand water logging and is resistant to fire. This species is weedy. For example, in Cuba, where cane farming has been banned, the tree spreads unrestrained and creates genuine forests on hilly terrain. Certain areas of central Cuba are home.⁷ Due to the presence of forestry plantations in nearly every country in Africa as well as South and East Asia, the distribution area has significantly increased. Cultivation takes place in silvopastoral systems in nations like Malaysia and India. Particularly notable among the Caribbean populations are those found in Cuba, where they are thought to be an invasive species that is challenging to remove due to their heliophilous nature, extended ecological amplitude, wood hardness, ease of sexual and asexual propagation, and presence of spines, which frequently form impenetrable thickets for humans and livestock.⁸

Morphology^9-12

 The semi-deciduous, five to seven meter tall Dichrostachys cinerea tree has an open crown.

Shrub: Small tree or shrub growing to a height of 1-8(12) m; occasionally it forms thickets and suckers, or in the case of a true Greenway, it can even be scandent. It has rough bark, spines at the ends of short, spreading twigs that bear leaves, inflorescences, and flowers frequently; other prickles are absent. Young branchlets are typically ± pubescent, but they can also be puberulous or even glabrous.

Bark: green when young and becomes grey-brown and fissured as the tree grows

Root: open round crown, 3 m wide, a deep tap root and many lateral horizontal roots that make eradication difficult.

Leaves: size is highly variable, typically pubescent but occasionally glabrous or puberulous: petiole 0.1–5 cm long; rhachis 1–16 cm long; pinnae (2)4–19 pairs; rhachillae 0.6–7.5 cm long; each pair of pinnae has a stalked or, less commonly, a sessile gland at the junction.

Colour: Green; Odour: distinct agreeable Odour; Taste: Bitter; Texture: Soft; Margin: Entire.

Leaflets 9–11 pairs, linear to oblong, glabrous to heavily pubescent, edges with spreading or appressed cilia, glabrous at times, venation inconspicuous to evident below.
Inflorescences: 2–5 cm long suspended on solitary or seemingly fascicled peduncles; yellow in the apical hermaphrodite half; mauve, pink, or occasionally white in the lower neuter section. 1–9 elongated, pendulous spikes, with half of the spike made up of sterile pink staminodes and the other half being a short, compact yellow catkin; the lower neuter section is sometimes white, while the upper hermaphrodite part is yellow.

Pods: dark brown, indehiscent, grouped, varyingly twisted or spiral, 2–10 x 0.5–1.5 cm. Each pod has four black seeds, each with a spot at one end. Seeds: 4-6 x 3-4.5 mm; lustrous, deep brown, compacted.

Flowers: The tree's lovely blossoms are its most peculiar feature. The flowers are 2.5–3.8 cm long and densely packed in axillary or extra axillary spikes. The spike's lower half is red, and its upper half is yellow. Ten stamens, on the upper golden part of the spike, of the beautiful flowers.  Staminoides, which are significantly longer than the spike's lower half at 1.3 cm red stamens.

Calyx: 0.8mm long, membranous, shortly toothed.

Corolla: 2.25cm long. (about 3 times as long as calyx).

Petals:  5, Valuate, connate below.

Fruit: A compact, thick, dark brown, glabrous, compressed pod that is somewhat jointed or sub-articulated, and may be linear, strap-shaped, coriaceous, indehiscent, or open irregularly.

Seed: Obovate, compressed, 4-6 and 3-4.5, deep brown, glassy appearance.

Fig. 1: Dichrostachys cinerea

Chemical Constituents^13-16

Leaves: According to reports, Dichrostachys cinerea leaves are used as a laxative and to treat boils and diarrhoea. It serves as fodder as well. Leaf powder is applied topically to treat fractures. The leaves are also used to treat gout, oedema, and discomfort. Naso-pharyngeal ailments, diuretics, swellings, and venereal disorders are also included.¹⁷

Stem Bark: In cases of ophthalmia, soft shoots of the plant are bruised and applied topically to the eyes. Bark is used to cure a variety of conditions, including arthritis, syphilis, gonorrhoea, leprosy, toothache, elephantiasis, vermifuge, snakebite, and dysentery. abortifacients, which are also used as pain relievers and for pulmonary issues.¹⁸

Roots: The roots are beneficial in vitiated situations of Kapha and Vata, inflammation, arthralgia, elephantiasis, dyspepsia, diarrhoea, vesical diseases, and are bitter, astringent, acrid, thermogenic, anti-inflammatory, anodyne, digestive, constipating, lithontriptic, and diuretic, joint pain, nephropathy, and calculi. The root infusions are taken for leprosy, syphilis coughs, as an anthelmintic, purgative. The roots are chewed and placed on the sites of snakebites and scorpion strings.^18-19

Branches: Branches are used for fencing and for cattle bomas.²⁰

Seeds And Pods: Seed-Pod of D. cinerea was used as pain-killer and antidotes (Venomous stings, bites, etc).^21-22

General: employed in the management of Sveta (leucorrhoea) and rakta pradar (menorrhagia) gathered from the Dandakaranya is given: Abrus precatorius, Asparagus procumbens, Dichrostachys cinerea, Erythrina indica, Ficus bengalensis, Hibiscus rosasinensis, Mimosa pudica and Phoenix sylvestris in pharmacognac.²³

Pharmacological Action

Anti-Venom Activity:

The antivenom activity by methanolic extract of root of Dichrostachys Cinerea plant was studied. The results found significant anti-venom activity against Russel’s viper venom induced mice than the aqueous and ethereal extract.⁵

Facilitate Child Birth:

A study has been conducted on the methanol extract of Dichrostachys Cinerea bark on child birth. The study was conducted on isolated uterine muscle from pregnant rats. The extract showed an increase in force of contraction of uterine fragments of pregnant rats.⁵

Antidiarrheal Activity:

The anti-diarrheal activity of ethanol extract of root and leaves of Dichrostachys Cinerea on Wister albino mice and rats by castor oil induced diarrhoeal model and small intestinal motility test. All The extract considerably decreased number of defecation and wet faecal matter.⁵

 Analgesic Activity:

The analgesic activity of ethanol extract of roots, leaves, bark of Dichrostachys cinerea plant was carried out by hot plate method and acetic acid induced writhing test.  Hot plate method using showed significant central analgesic effect than the peripheral effect. The acetic acid induced writhing test shows possess both central and peripheral analgesic effect.⁶

Anti-Inflammatory Activity:

The ethanol extract's anti-inflammatory properties of leaves, bark and roots of Dichrostachys cinerea plant has been examined by carrageenan-induced acute paw edema and cotton pellet chronic granuloma method. The extracts by carragenaan induced paw edema in mice shows action of reduction in volume of paw edema probably by inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis. The extracts by roots in cotton pellet granuloma in rats shows significant reduction in granuloma weight.⁶ The anti-inflammatory activity of water and ethanol extract of Dichrostachys cinerea fruits on rat inflammation model induced by complete Freund's adjuvant showed significant reduction of edema in rat.¹⁴ The anti-inflammatory activity of aqueous extract of leaves of Dichrostachys cinerea on Carragennan induced method and Dextran induced method in Wistar rats showed significant anti-inflammatory effect of leaves of Dichrostachys cinerea only at higher doses.²⁴

Antiviral Activity:

The antiviral activity of 70% methanol extract of leaf of Dichrostachys cinerea and clovamide by MTT assays showed a remarkable antiviral activity against influenza A virus (H5N1). The pure compound clovamide shows higher rate of inhibition than the ethanol extract of leaves.⁸

 Antiparasitic Activities:

The crude extract of Dichrostachys cinerea showed a significant antitrypanosomal and antiviral effects. Clovamide, a significant ingredient extracted from Dichrostachys cinerea plant leaves using various chemical and spectral techniques, was studied for its potential antiviral and antitrypanosomal properties. It showed a significant antiviral effect against H5N1 influenza A virus and a momentous trypanocidal effect against Trypanosoma evansi.⁸

Anti-Asthmatic Effect¹¹

 The anti-asthmatic activity of hydro alcoholic action of roots of Dichrostachys cinerea plants on Guinea pig proved marked bronchodilation due to presence of flavonoids, tannins, sterols, triterpenes by action of activating beta-adrenergic receptor, opening of potassium channel, blocking of calcium channe. The anti-asthmatic activity of aqueous extract of roots of Dichrostachys cinerea plant on Guinea pig produced a significant relax on tracheal smooth muscle. The study shows that the extract could block both histaminic and muscurinic receptor on Guinea pig trachea.

Cytotoxicity Effect:

The cytotoxicity activity of ethanol extract of bark Dichrostachys cinerea plant by resazurin reduction assay method found a considerable potential cytotoxic activity of plant towards multifactorial dry resistant cancer cells. By changing MMP, extract 12 caused apoptosis in CCRF-CEM cells and increased the generation of ROS.¹³

Anticonvulsant Activity:

The anticonvulsant action by ethanol extract and successive extract of aerial (leaves, stems and flowers) parts of Dichrostachys cinerea plant on albino rats showed significant anticonvulsant action.²⁵

Anti-Oxidant Activity:

Dichrostachys cinerea root, stem, and bark alcohol extract's antioxidant activity as measured by DPPH ²⁵. The antioxidant activity of aqueous, ethyl acetate, butanol, methanol, dichloromethane extract of Dichrostachys cinerea plant showed significant antioxidant activity due presence of high phenolic compounds.¹⁴

The antioxidant activity of ethyl acetate extract of Dichrostachys cinerea roots shows that ethyl acetate fraction is found to be rich in total phenolic and flavonoid content. These constituents may be responsible for observed antioxidant potential. The extract of ethyl acetate can be considered a new source of natural antioxidant.²⁶

Antihyperglycemic Effect:

The ant hyperglycemic effect of hydro alcoholic extract and ethyl acetate fraction of roots of Dichrostachys cinerea plant was tested on glucose loaded diabetic rats by glucose tolerance test. These studies show the ethyl acetate fraction shows significant diabetic effect because of the existence of phenolic compounds through enhancement of peripheral metabolism of glucose and even an increase insulin release.²⁶

 Antibacterial Activity:

The antibacterial activity of tannins isolated from ethanol extract of root of Dichrostachys cinerea by agar diffusion method against Staphylococcus aureus, Shigella boydii, Shigella flexneri, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. An increase in tannin concentration has been linked to an increase in antibacterial efficacy.^27. The antimicrobial activity by methanol extract of leaves of Dichrostachys cinerea using agar diffusion method against Staphylococcus aureus. All of the extracts exhibited lower activity than the positive control medication, ciprofloxacin.²⁸ By using the well diffusion method, the antibacterial activity of the aqueous, acetone, and ethanol leaves of the Dichrostachys cinerea plant is demonstrated against uropathogenic Escherichia coli that produces biofilm and ESBL.There was no significant zone of inhibition in aqueous and acetone extract.²⁹ The fruit and leaf extracts of Dichrostachys cinerea were examined for their antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa using chloroform, methanol, and aqueous extracts. All extracts showed antibacterial activity, the polar ones being the more effective.³⁰

Antiurolithiatic Activity:

The anti urolithiatic activity by ethanol extract of Dichrostachys cinerea roots on urolithiate rats revealed a significant reduction and prevention of growth of urinary stone. The study's conclusion was attributed to the presence of flavonoids and phenolic chemicals in plant roots.³¹ The antilithiatic activity by aqueous extract of Dichrostachys cinerea roots in male Wistar albino rats. showed a substantial reduction in high urine oxalate levels.³²

Antimalarial Activity:

The anti-malarial activity of crude 70% ethanol extract of root and bark of Dichrostachys cinerea plant and fraction of chloroform-n-butanol, ethyl acetate was tested on albino mice injected with Plasmodium berghei parasitemia. The extracts and all fractions was examined by Four-day suppressive test against Plasmodium berghei, a rodent malarial parasite. The extract and all fractions revealed a strong anti- malarial activity due to presence of phenolic compound by showing reduction in weight, rectal temperature and increase in suppression of parasetemia and survival time of mice. The chloroform fraction displaced the highest level of suppression of parasetemia.³³ The anti- malarial activity of methanol and dichloromethane extracts of Dichrostachys cinerea plant against strains of Plasmodium falciparum using acetate dehydrogenase method (pLDH) exhibited very significant anti-malarial activities in the mouse model.³⁴

Demulcent Effect:

The demulcent activity of aqueous of gum obtained from bark of Dichrostachys cinerea  plant found that the gum had a high moisture content and can be used as product for cosmetic, pharmaceutical and food industries.³⁵

Hepatotoxicity And Nephrotoxicity Activity:

The hepatoxicity and nephrotoxic activity of hot aqueous extract of root of Dichrostachys cinerea plant on liver and kidney function in male Wistar rats shows significant increase in liver and serum aspirate aminotransferase (AST), serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT), kidney and serum gammagultaryl transferase (GGT) and serum urea levels.³⁶ Hepatoprotective activity against cc14-induced liver damage demonstrated by Dichrostachys cinerea leaf methanol extract in albino mice and rats³⁷.Significant nephroprotective effect was shown when alcohol extract from the roots of the Dichrostachys cinerea plant was applied to Wistar strain albino rats that had kidney infections caused by cisplatin.

Anti-Diuretic Activity:

Antidiuretic activity of decoction from roots of Dichrostachys cinerea plants in albino rats shows  significant increase in urine volume due increase in glomerular filtration rate and increase renal blood flow.³⁸

Antifungal Activity:

Antifungal activity of methanol, dichloromethane and petroleum ether extracts of leaves and stems of Dichrostachys cinerea plant by agar diffusion method against some isolates of dermatophytic fungi like Microsporum cannis, Trichophyton Terrestre, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Trichophyton verrucosum. The results show reduced effect in petroleum ether extract compared to dichloromethane and methanol extract indicating Dichrostachys cinerea plant is essential for treating dermatophytic diseases. ³⁹

Antimicrobial Activity:

Anti-microbial activity of ethanolic and aqueous extracts of roots and stems of Dichrostachys cinerea plant against clinical isolates of Candida albicans, Streptococus mutans, Staphylococus saprophyticus tested on chewing twigs. The study shows that both extracts inhibited the growth of all three tested microorganisms. However compared to the ethanolic extract of the root, the ethanolic extract of the stem showed a substantially higher (P<0.05) bioactivity.The results shows that Dichostachys cinerea is potential candidate plant that could be applied to the development of a dentifrice.^.40 Antibacterial activity of tannin extracts from roots of Dichrostachys Cinerea plant against several bacterial strains including Staphylococcus aureus, Shigella boydii, Shigella flexneri, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa by Agar diffusion method showed a significant anti-microbial activity.⁴¹