Bridelia Montana Wild.: An Ethnomedicinal Plant Advancing Toward Evidence-Based Therapeutics

Abstract

Bridelia montana Wild., a lesser-known yet pharmacologically significant plant belonging to the family Phyllanthaceae, has been traditionally used in Ayurvedic and folk medicine across India and Southeast Asia. This review comprehensively explores its botanical characteristics, ethnomedicinal applications, phytochemical constituents, and diverse pharmacological properties. Scientific studies have demonstrated that B. montana and its allied species exhibit potent antioxidant, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, antimicrobial, and potential anticancer activities, attributed primarily to bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, tannins, and alkaloids. Acute and sub-chronic toxicity studies suggest a favourable safety profile, reinforcing its long-standing traditional use. Despite its therapeutic promise, research gaps remain in areas such as clinical validation, mechanism of action, and standardization of bioactive extracts. Moreover, threats to wild populations from overharvesting underscore the need for conservation and sustainable utilization. This review highlights the immense potential of Bridelia montana as a source of novel therapeutic agents and calls for advanced interdisciplinary studies to facilitate its integration into modern phytomedicine and drug development pipelines.

Keywords

Introduction

4. Cultivation and Propagation

Methods of Propagation

Bridelia montana can be propagated by both seeds and vegetative methods such as stem cuttings. Seed propagation is the most common approach; however, germination rates can be variable and may require pre-treatment to enhance success. Soaking seeds in warm water for 24 hours has been reported to improve germination ³⁶. Vegetative propagation using stem cuttings or root suckers is effective under controlled nursery conditions. Cuttings treated with rooting hormones such as indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) have shown improved root initiation and survival rates, making this a preferred method for large-scale propagation in nurseries ³⁷.

Agroclimatic Conditions for Growth

Bridelia montana is a deciduous tree species that thrives in subtropical to tropical climates, commonly found at elevations of 300–1200 meters above sea level. It prefers well-drained, lateritic or sandy-loam soils and is tolerant of dry conditions, making it suitable for cultivation in dry deciduous forest regions ³⁸. Optimal growth has been observed in areas receiving moderate rainfall (800–1500 mm/year) and temperatures ranging between 20°C and 35°C. The plant requires ample sunlight and shows moderate tolerance to drought, which allows it to be incorporated into agroforestry and reforestation programs ³⁹. To ensure sustainability and commercial viability, cultivation should be combined with appropriate harvesting practices, such as rotational bark harvesting and periodic pruning, to minimize damage to the main plant body and ensure regeneration⁴⁰.

5. Phytochemical Constituents of Bridelia montana Wild.

Bridelia montana Wild., a medicinally important member of the Phyllanthaceae family, has drawn significant attention due to its diverse array of bioactive secondary metabolites. These constituents are believed to underlie the therapeutic efficacy observed in both traditional and experimental medicine. A thorough analysis of its phytochemical composition reveals a rich presence of flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids, saponins, steroids, terpenoids, and other phenolic compounds.

6. Major Bioactive Compounds Identified

Several phytochemical investigations have demonstrated that Bridelia montana contains a complex mixture of pharmacologically active compounds distributed across different parts of the plant:

• Flavonoids such as quercetin, kaempferol, and rutin have been identified in methanolic and ethyl acetate extracts. These compounds act as potent antioxidants and have been linked to anti-inflammatory, antihyperglycemic, and hepatoprotective activities ³¹.
• Tannins, particularly hydrolyzable tannins like gallic acid and ellagic acid, are abundant in bark and leaves. They exhibit antimicrobial, antiulcer, and antidiarrheal properties due to their protein-precipitating and astringent nature ^{42, 25}.
• Alkaloids, a class of nitrogen-containing compounds, are found in both bark and leaf extracts. Although their specific identity in B. montana is less defined, their presence has been confirmed by standard qualitative tests. Alkaloids are known for analgesic and antimicrobial effects ¹⁷.
• Saponins, detected especially in fruits and bark, have immunomodulatory, hypocholesterolaemia, and hypoglycaemic potential. Their surfactant properties enable interaction with biological membranes, influencing nutrient absorption and immune responses ¹⁷.
• Steroids such as β-sitosterol and stigmasterol have been identified in chloroform and ethanol extracts, suggesting anti-inflammatory and hormone-modulating effects ²⁵.
• Terpenoids, including lupeol and α-amyrin, have been reported in the bark and root extracts. These compounds exhibit anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and antidiabetic activity ¹³.
• Phenolic acids, especially gallic acid and ellagic acid, contribute strongly to the antioxidant potential of Bridelia montana, supporting its role in managing oxidative stress, diabetes, and neurodegeneration ¹⁵.

Methods of Phytochemical Screening

To detect and characterize these compounds, a variety of phytochemical screening methods have been applied:

• Preliminary qualitative tests screen for major groups such as flavonoids, tannins, saponins, and alkaloids. Tests include the Shinoda test (for flavonoids), ferric chloride test (for phenolics), and Dragendorff’s reagent (for alkaloids) ⁴¹.
• UV–Visible (UV-Vis) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) are used to identify functional groups and chemical bonding patterns ⁴².
• Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) allow for extract fingerprinting based on Rf values of constituents ⁴³.
• Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is used for identifying volatile and semi-volatile compounds such as phytosterols and terpenoids ⁴⁴.
• High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS) provide quantitative and structural analysis of phenolic acids and flavonoids, crucial for standardization and quality control ⁴⁵.
• Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and Infrared (IR) spectroscopy support structural elucidation and functional group identification of isolated compounds ⁴⁶.

Extracts Studied

The phytochemical profile of Bridelia montana varies with the extraction solvent used, which reflects differences in polarity and compound solubility:

• Aqueous extracts primarily contain tannins, glycosides, and some flavonoids, often used in ethnomedicinal preparations ⁴⁰.
• Methanolic extracts are rich in flavonoids, alkaloids, and phenolic acids, and have shown high biological activity ³¹.
• Ethanolic extracts yield a wide spectrum of compounds including terpenoids and saponins, used frequently in pharmacological evaluations ⁴⁷.
• Ethyl acetate extracts contain intermediate-polarity compounds like flavonoids, tannins, and phenolic acids, and demonstrate potent antioxidant and antidiabetic properties ³³.
• Chloroform and petroleum ether extracts, being non-polar, effectively extract steroids, lipophilic terpenoids, and fatty acids ¹³.

These differences in solvent extraction help isolate and understand specific compound classes and their individual therapeutic contributions. The phytochemical richness of Bridelia montana justifies its widespread traditional use and highlights its potential for future pharmacological exploration and drug development.

7. Pharmacological Activities of Bridelia montana Wild.

7.1. Antioxidant Activity

Extracts of Bridelia species, especially the leaves and stem bark, are rich in phenolic compounds, tannins, and flavonoids, which are known to possess potent antioxidant activity. These bioactive compounds help in scavenging free radicals and reducing oxidative stress in cells ^{19, 13}.

7.2. Antibacterial and Antifungal Activity

Bridelia bark and leaf extracts have shown broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, as well as antifungal effects against Candida albicans. These activities are attributed to the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, and tannins⁴⁸.

7.3. Anti-inflammatory Activity

In vivo studies have revealed that Bridelia extracts significantly inhibit inflammation in carrageenan-induced paw edema models, indicating suppression of pro-inflammatory mediators such as prostaglandins and cytokines ⁴⁹.

7.4. Antidiabetic Activity

Experimental models of diabetes mellitus induced by streptozotocin (STZ) have shown that administration of Bridelia extracts improves blood glucose levels, enhances insulin sensitivity, and normalizes lipid profiles. These effects support the ethnomedicinal use of Bridelia montana for managing diabetes ⁵⁰.

7.5. Hepatoprotective Activity

The hepatoprotective potential of Bridelia species has been validated in carbon tetrachloride and paracetamol-induced hepatotoxicity models. Extract-treated animals showed lower serum transaminase levels (ALT, AST) and improved liver histology ⁵¹.

7.6. Anticancer Activity

Although limited, preliminary in vitro studies suggest that methanolic extracts of Bridelia species exhibit cytotoxic effects on certain human cancer cell lines, including MCF-7 (breast cancer) and HT-29 (colon cancer), possibly through apoptosis induction and anti-proliferative mechanisms ⁵².

7.7. Other Biological Activities

Other reported bioactivities include analgesic and antipyretic effects, which justify its traditional use in fever, headache, and general pain management⁵³.

8. Toxicity and Safety Studies

8.1 Acute and Chronic Toxicity Studies

Toxicological evaluations of Bridelia species indicate a favourable safety profile. Acute toxicity studies using ethanolic or aqueous extracts in animal models (primarily mice and rats) have shown no mortality or significant behavioral changes up to a dose of 2000 mg/kg body weight, suggesting the extracts are relatively non-toxic⁴⁹. Chronic toxicity assessments, where available, also reported no significant alterations in hematological, hepatic, or renal parameters after prolonged administration⁵³.

8.2 LD?? Values

The oral LD?? (lethal dose for 50% of the population) for Bridelia retusa extract in rats has been reported to be greater than 2000 mg/kg, indicating a low level of acute toxicity⁴⁹. While direct LD?? values for Bridelia montana are not yet published, its close taxonomic relation and traditional use suggest a similar safety margin.

8.3 Safety Profile in Traditional Use and Laboratory Models

Bridelia montana has been used for generations in traditional Ayurvedic and folk medicine for treating conditions such as diarrhea, inflammation, wounds, and diabetes. Its widespread use without major adverse reports implies a strong ethnopharmacological safety record¹². In laboratory models, sub-acute and sub-chronic administration of Bridelia extracts did not show any histopathological damage to vital organs such as the liver, kidney, or heart, further supporting its safe use at therapeutic doses ^53,54.

9. Conservation Status

9.1 Threats to Wild Populations

Bridelia montana is widely distributed in India, Sri Lanka, and parts of Southeast Asia, commonly found in deciduous forests and dry hilly regions. While not officially listed as endangered by the IUCN, regional reports indicate that the species faces increasing threats due to deforestation, overharvesting of stem bark and roots for medicinal use, and habitat fragmentation caused by agricultural expansion and urbanization ^40,55. Unregulated collection of plant parts from the wild especially for use in traditional medicine and local market scan lead to population decline. Since the bark is one of the most commonly used parts, its overharvesting can be particularly harmful, as it may lead to the death of the plant or reduce its regenerative capacity ⁵⁶.

9.2 Conservation Efforts or Sustainable Harvesting Practices

Current conservation efforts are limited, but some local forest departments and research institutions in India have initiated awareness programs promoting the cultivation of medicinal plants including Bridelia montana ⁵⁷. Sustainable harvesting practices such as periodic bark stripping rather than complete removal, seasonal harvesting, and cultivation in home gardens or agroforestry systems have been recommended to reduce pressure on wild populations. Additionally, ex situ conservation methods, such as seed banking and propagation in botanical gardens, have been proposed as strategies to preserve genetic diversity. Cultivation trials have shown that Bridelia montana can be propagated successfully from seeds and cuttings, which supports the feasibility of its inclusion in herbal gardens and medicinal plant nurseries⁵⁸.

10. Future Prospects and Research Gaps

10.1 Areas Requiring Further Study

Although preliminary studies on Bridelia montana and its close relatives have shown promising pharmacological activities, significant research gaps remain:

• Clinical trials: Most findings are based on in vitro or animal models. There is a lack of controlled human clinical trials to confirm the safety and efficacy of Bridelia montana extracts in managing conditions such as diabetes, inflammation, and infections ⁵⁰.
• Mechanisms of action: The molecular pathways and targets involved in the therapeutic effects of the plant such as anti-inflammatory or antidiabetic actions are not yet fully elucidated. More research is needed using tools like transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics ⁵⁹.
• Standardization of extracts: Few studies have reported the exact phytochemical content or bioactive concentrations in standardized extracts. This is essential for reproducibility, dosage determination, and regulatory approval⁵³.
• Long-term safety studies: Although acute toxicity data are encouraging, long-term safety, potential herb-drug interactions, and reproductive toxicity evaluations remain unexplored⁶⁰.

10.2 Potential for Drug Development or Nutraceuticals

Given its wide spectrum of biological activities, Bridelia montana holds potential for:

• Development of phytopharmaceuticals targeting chronic diseases like diabetes, liver disorders, and microbial infections, especially using bioactive fractions or isolated compounds⁶⁰.
• Nutraceuticals and functional foods, particularly antioxidant-rich formulations, may be developed using standardized extracts or dried plant parts after ensuring safety and regulatory compliance⁶¹.
• Synergistic herbal formulations: As part of polyherbal combinations, Bridelia montana could enhance the efficacy of existing herbal remedies through synergistic action, especially in traditional systems like Ayurveda⁶².

Collaboration between traditional healers, pharmacologists, and biotechnologists will be essential to unlock the full potential of Bridelia montana in modern medicine.

CONCLUSION

Bridelia montana Willd. is a medicinal plant of considerable ethnopharmacological significance, widely used in traditional systems of medicine for managing ailments such as diabetes, inflammation, infections, and liver disorders? Its diverse phytochemical profile, including flavonoids, tannins, and alkaloids, underpins a wide range of pharmacological activities, notably antioxidant, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, and antimicrobial effects. Preclinical studies have demonstrated promising therapeutic benefits, supporting its traditional uses and highlighting its potential for development into modern phytopharmaceuticals or nutraceutical products. Moreover, its relatively safe toxicological profile adds to its suitability for further research and therapeutic application. Despite these advances, significant gaps remain particularly the lack of human clinical trials, detailed mechanistic studies, and standardization of extracts. Addressing these areas through interdisciplinary research could pave the way for the integration of Bridelia montana into evidence-based medicine. Thus, Bridelia montana stands at the intersection of traditional knowledge and modern science, offering a valuable natural resource for future drug development and health interventions.

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