Department of Pharmacology, Vidhyabharti college of Pharmacy, camp road, Amravati 444601, Maharashtra India
Pterocarpus marsupium, a versatile medicinal plant belonging to the Fabaceae family, has been extensively used in traditional medicine systems like Ayurveda for its therapeutic properties. The plant, native to India and Southeast Asia, is known for its bark, heartwood, and resin, which contain bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, tannins, and stilbenes. These compounds have demonstrated antidiabetic, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties in various pharmacological studies. P. marsupium has been traditionally used to treat diabetes, digestive issues, wound healing, and as an anti-inflammatory agent. Recent scientific research has focused on validating its medicinal potential, particularly in managing blood sugar levels and promoting overall health. The plant's active compounds have been explored for their ability to regulate blood sugar levels, improve pancreatic function, and reduce oxidative stress. Additionally, P. marsupium has shown neuroprotective, analgesic, and memory-enhancing activities in animal models. The plant's extracts have also exhibited antibacterial and antihyperlipidemic properties. Due to its medicinal and timber value, P. marsupium has gained commercial interest for cultivation. To guarantee the sustainable management of its populations in the wild, conservation measures are required. To completely understand the mechanisms of action and therapeutic effectiveness of P. marsupium's bioactive substances in treating a variety of illnesses, more research is required.
Many plants have been utilised to heal illnesses and ailments in traditional medical methods. Many medications that have been isolated from plants and have positive effects are on the market. Between 75 and 80 percent of people worldwide still rely on medicinal plants for their primary medical requirements, even though the use of herbal medicine dates back to the dawn of human civilisation. This is because they are inexpensive, readily available, and free of adverse consequences. According to the WHO, the usage of herbs as treatments for a variety of illnesses is two to three times more than that of conventional medications Numerous plants have been utilised as medicine from ancient times. One such plant that has proven adaptable with a wide range of pharmacological activities is Pterocarpus marsupium. Numerous traditional medical systems, including Ayurvedic, Unani, and homoeopathic systems, have made reference to it. Because of its great adaptability, which nature has given it, this herb has a broad spectrum of pharmacological effects. Asana in Sanskrit, Vijayasar or Bija in Hindi, and Indian Kino tree or Malabar tree in English are all common names for the plant Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb., which is a member of the Fabaceae family. In the Ayurvedic medical system, P. marsupium is a plant medication that is a member of the "Rasayana" class. These "Rasayana" medications reduce stress in the body and act as immunomodulators. The mountainous areas of central and peninsular India are where it is most frequently grown. The deciduous and evergreen woods of central, western, and southern India are home to Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. The states of Orissa, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat are where it is most prevalent. The tree's size ranges from moderate to large. Its height ranges from fifteen to thirty meters. It has a large concentration of many phytoconstituents, including Epicatechin, kinoin, kino-red beta-eudesmol, kino-tannic acid, carsupin, marsupol, marsupinol, pterosupin, pterostilbene, liquirtigenin, isoliquiritigenin, and pterosupin. A medium- to large-sized deciduous tree, PM can grow up to 30 meters in height and 2.5 meters in diameter. Its leaves are complex and imparipinnate, and its dark brown to grey bark includes surface fissures. The fruit is a spherical, flat, winged pod with convex and bony seeds, and the terminal panicles have yellow flowers. The tree bears fruit and blooms from March to June. P. marsupium has fragrant yellow flowers on large pannicles. It features flat, orbicular seed pods and wings. The P. marsupium tree has rough, scaly, grey, and longitudinally fractured bark. The gum resin of older trees has a blood-red colour. The sapwood of the tree is pale yellow to white, but the heartwood is golden yellow. Use gum-kino for diarrhoea, dysentery, leucorrhea, etc.; use bark as an astringent for fevers and toothaches; use blossoms for stomach-aches and skin conditions. Bark and resin decoctions have traditionally been used as abortifacients and to treat urethral discharges and gland tumours. The heartwood has anodyne, astringent, anti-inflammatory, and anti-diabetic properties. The plant material has long been employed as an external cooling treatment for headaches and inflammations, as well as an antipyretic, anti-helminthic, aphrodisiac, alexeteic, and in the treatment of ulcers, mental abnormalities, and biliousness. Ayurveda has long utilised the heart wood, leaves, and flowers of the P. marsupium tree for their therapeutic qualities. The heart wood is used to cure inflammation and as an astringent. It is well recognised that P. marsupium's wood and bark have anti-diabetic properties.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
MEDICINAL RESEARCH AND MODERN DEVELOPMENT
TAXONOMICAL CLASSIFICATION
Botanical Name:-Pterocarpus marsupium
Kingdom :- Plantae
Subkingdom :- Viridaeplantae
Phylum :- Magnoliophyta
Subphylum:- Euphyllophytina
Class:- Magnoliopsida
Subclass :- Rosidae
Superorder :- Fabanae
Order :- Fabales
Family :- Fabaceae
Genus :- Pterocarpus
Species:- Marsupium
SYNONYMS
Vijyasara, Bija, Pterocarpus bilobus, Lingoum marsupium
COMMON NAME:- Indian kino tree,Malabar kino ,Bijasal , Vijaysaar , Asana , Bijaka, Raktha honne mara, Benga mara, Volle hone.
Habitat
Karnataka, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra are among the hilly regions of central and peninsular India where they are typically found. This deciduous tree, which can grow to a height of 90 feet or more, is moderate to huge. Additionally, it is found in Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and the Himalayan and sub-Himalayan regions of Nepal and Sri Lanka at heights of 3,000 feet. If the drainage is adequate, it can grow on a wide range of formations. Although it is frequently found on red loam with some clay, it favours a soil that has a considerable quantity of sand. It typically receives 75 to 200 cm of rainfall in its natural environment, but in areas of Mysore and Kerala, where rainfall is considerably higher, it reaches its highest size. The young seedlings are frost-tender, and it is a moderate light demander.
Morphological characteristics
PM trees range in height from 15 to 30 meters. The compound, imparipinnate leaves lack stipules; leaflets have round, smooth, and waved petioles and are oblong, obtuse, emarginated, and globous. Large terminal panicles. They have spherical peduncles and pedicels. tiny, caduceus-shaped bracts that are solitary. Lots of white flowers with a touch of yellow. Sides reflexed, wavy, curled, and veined; vexillum with long, thin claw; keel two pettled. Ten stamens clustered around the base and split into two clusters of five. Anthers have two lobes and are globose. ovary that is pedicelled, oblong, and hairy. growing pattern. Reniform and single seeds. robust, asymmetrical stem with widely spaced branches. The heartwood is irregularly shaped and varies in thickness and size. It has darker stripes and is golden yellowish-brown. It produces a yellow solution with blue florescence when soaked in water. robust, long-lasting, and challenging to break. It tastes rough and has no fragrance.
Description
Leaves: The compound leaves are oblong or elliptical, 3 to 5 inches lengthy with a wavy edge or round sharp, or refuse ends; the inner surface is glaucous, and the secondary nerves are parallel and closely spaced, with each side measuring more than 12 cm.
Flowers: Yellow flowers that are up to 1.5 cm long, with papilionaceous corollas that extend over the calyx and Stamen 10 that is split into two bundles. The flowers are arranged in dense, big bunches.
Fruits: roundish, winged, single-seeded, 2 to 5 cm long. Indehiscent, orbicular, compressed, widely hardened, with wings around the edge, legumes are often single-seeded, have subreniform seeds, and have short hilums.
Heartwood: The heartwood is robust and tenacious, with dark streaks that deepen when exposed and turn yellow when damp. It is golden to yellowish brown in colour.
MICROSCOPIC CHARACTERISTICS
The lignified and tannin-filled wood is made up of vessels, tracheids, fibre tracheids, and wood parenchyma. The medium-sized, drum-shaped vessels are dispersed, creating semiring-porous conditions with tyloses. With tapering ends and basic pits on the side walls, tracheids are long, numerous, and thick-walled. The xylem parenchyma surrounds the vessel in a rectangular, basic pitted structure with small, thick walls and blunt edges. There are a few crystal fibres visible in the wood's tangential section. Tree bark produces a reddish gum called Kino gum, which is highly astringent and becomes brittle when it hardens. Permeable sclerosis Resin channels 8 stem hairs that overlap metaxylem and protoxylem are the red marks.
PHYTOCHEMISTRY
Pterosupin, pterostilbene, liquiritigenin, epicatechin, kinotannic acid, kinoin, kino-red beta-eudesmol, carpusin, and marsupinol are the main chemical constituents of P. marsupium. The following components were detected in the powdered dry heartwood of Pterocarpus marsupium by ethyl acetate extract: Pterostilbene (2S) p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, marsupsin, pterosupin, 7,4'-dihydroxyflavone, isoliquiritigenin, liquiritigenin, -7-hydroxyflavanone, and (2R) (p-hydroxyphenyl) -3--lactic acid and PM-33. three substances from Pterocarpus marsupium's ethyl acetate fraction, retusin-8-O-α-L-arabinopyranoside, lupeol, and naringenin. Among other chemicals, pterocarpol was obtained from the ethyl acetate extract of the dried heartwood of Pterocarpus marsupium that was aqueously decocted. identified pterocarpous, an is aurone C-glucoside. extracted 1-(2', 6'-dihydroxyphenyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside, a new C glucoside, from the water decoction of Pterocarpus marsupium powdered dry heartwood. Pteroside, pteroisoauroside, marsuposide, flavon C-glucoside, vijayosin, and two recognised chemicals, C-β-D-glucopyranosyl-2,6-dihydroxyl benzene and sesquiterpene, were identified in the aqueous extract of Pterocarpus marsupium heartwood. Pterocarpus marsupium was extracted using ethanol in a percolator, and (-)-epicatechin was identified as the phenolic component. Furthermore, two sterols were discovered: stigmasterol and sitosterol. From the roots of Pterocarpus marsupium, Tripathi and Joshi isolated two novel flavonoid glycosides: 7,8,4' trihydroxy-3',5'-dimethoxy flavanone-4'-O-beta-D glucopyranoside and 7-Hydroxy-6,8-dimethyl flavanone-7-O-alpha-L-arabinopyranoside.
Many researchers have isolated various phenolic compounds from P. marsupium extracts, including, pterostilbene, B-eudesmol, stilbene, chalcone, triterpene alcohol, liquiritigenin, catechin, epicatechin, pseudobaptigenin, garbanzol, isoliquiritigenin, dihydrochalcone, pterosuprin and aromatic aldehyde, marsupol and other phenolic compounds. P. marsupium is a rich source of polyphenolic chemicals, according to Seshadri. Stilbene, pterostilbene, B-eudesmol, triterpene alcohol, erythrodiol-3-monoacetate, epicatechin, pseudobaptigenin, liquiritigenin , chalcone, isoliquiritigenin, dihydrochalcone, pterosuprin and aromatic aldehyde, p hydroxybenzaldehyde, marsupol , and other phenolic compounds have been isolated from P. marsupium extracts by a variety of researchers.
ESTIMATION OF PTEROSTILBENE
The estimation of pterostilbene content in Pterocarpus marsupium has been conducted using advanced analytical techniques. Here's a detailed overview:
Fig No 1: HPLC Chromatograph
FIG NO 2 : HPTLC Method
FIG NO 3 : UV Visible Spectra of Pterostilbene
MEDICINAL USE OF VARIOUS PARTS OF PLANT
Traditional Ayurvedic medicine in India has long made use of various parts of the P. marsupium tree. There have been reports of the therapeutic advantages, especially for the bark, fruit, and leaves. Cholera, diarrhoea, urinary tract problems, tongue diseases, stomach aches, and toothaches are all treated with the bark. "Kino," This tree's gum exudate is used as an astringent. The gum tastes awful and is unpleasant. Nonetheless, it has antipyretic, anthelmintic, and liver-tonic properties, and is beneficial for all body ailments and styptic vulnerants. It is also effective for biliousness, griping, opthalmiya, boils, and urine discharges. The blooms induce flatulence, increase hunger, and are bitter. India has a long history of using P. marsupium to treat diabetes. In addition to lowering blood glucose, this medication is thought to offer some special qualities, such as protecting and regenerating beta cells.
COMMERCIAL VALUE
TOXICITY STUDY
Acute Toxicity:
Sub-Chronic and Chronic Toxicity:
Cytotoxicity and Embryotoxicity:
Histopathological Studies:
PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTION
Neuroprotective activity
The neuroprotective effect of P. marsupium aqueous extract at 100 and 200 mg/day on the pain threshold response in diabetic neuropathic pain caused by streptozotocin was investigated for eight weeks by Gunasekaran et al. After eight weeks, the formalin-evoked pain model was used to quantify TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and pain threshold response, among other characteristics. According to the study's findings, the extract considerably raised the pain threshold response while also dramatically lowering TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 levels. They also noted that in STZ-induced neuropathic pain, the extract's anti-inflammatory and neurogenerational pathways demonstrated a neuroprotective impact.
Anti-oxidant Activity
The anti-oxidant potential of PM bark has been investigated using a range of antioxidant models, such as DPPH, NO, OH and protection of in vitro lipid peroxidation. The outcomes showed that PM is capable of scavenging free radicals. The 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl test was used to evaluate PM bark extract's in vitro antioxidant capacity; the results were expressed as IC50. The IC50 of PM was 53.0 μg/ml, whereas the IC50 of ascorbic acid (standard) was 34.0 μg/ml. In one study, PM extract shielded the cardiac muscles from oxidative damage caused by H2O2. Using a variety of antioxidant models, the anti-oxidant potential of PM bark (aqueous, methanol, and ethyl acetate extract) was examined. According to the findings, PM may scavenge free radicals. The 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl test was used to evaluate PM bark extract's in vitro antioxidant capacity; the results were expressed as IC50. The IC50 of PM was 53.0 μg/ml, whereas that of ascorbic acid (standard) was 34.0 μg/ml. In one study, PM extract shielded the cardiac muscles from oxidative damage caused by H2O2.
Anti-diabetic activity
P. marsupium has unique pharmacological properties, including the ability to reduce blood sugar and to protect and regenerate beta cells. According to a number of studies, P. marsupium actually restores normal insulin production by repopulating the islets and reversing the beta cell damage. Hyperglycaemia and inadequate endogenous insulin secretion or activity are hallmarks of diabetes mellitus, a metabolic illness. Over 124 million individuals worldwide suffer from this prevalent ailment. Through a number of pathways, persistent hyperglycaemia in diabetic circumstances leads to the generation of free radicals or compromised antioxidant defences. Furthermore, there is strong evidence that diabetes modifies antioxidant enzyme activity across several tissues. Numerous studies have demonstrated that antioxidants that can neutralise free radicals can prevent experimentally caused diabetes in animal models and lower the severity of diabetic outcomes. Additionally, diabetic patients who received antioxidant supplements had improved defences against free radical damage. Recent studies have shown that several herbal plants contain antidiabetic and antioxidative qualities. When incorporated into a diabetic's diet, these plants may help lower their oxidative load. Certain plant or herb extracts that have both antidiabetic and antioxidant properties may be more helpful than other treatments in reducing the oxidative burden associated with diabetes.
Analgesic Activity:
In one study, methanol and ethyl acetate were used in that order to extract PM leaves. The acetic acid-induced writhing experiment was then used to test the extracts' analgesic effectiveness in Swiss albino mice. With petroleum ether and ethyl acetate extracts ranking second and third, respectively, to the methanol extract, significant analgesic activity was shown. Using the hot-plate method, PM bark extract's central analgesic efficacy showed that mice's reaction latency time to thermal stimuli increased and their pain threshold lowered in a way that was comparable to that of the reference drug, pentazocine.
CNS activity
The methanol extracts of P. marsupium have potent nootropic activity. (-)-Epicatechin was isolated from the bark and tested for its effects on the central nervous systems of frogs, rats, and mice. The CNSs of rats, mice, and frogs were found to be unaffected by (-)-epicatechin. Propranolol was used to counteract the beneficial chronotropic and inotropic effects of epicatechin on the frog's heart. At larger dosages (200 and 500 mg/kg b. wt.) of this chemical, rats develop hyperglycemia; propranolol also inhibits this effect, suggesting adrenergic action.
Anti-inflammatory Activity
PM has strong anti-inflammatory properties as well. The PGE2-inhibitory and COX-1/2 selective inhibitory effects of an extract containing pterostilbene were examined in LPS-stimulated PBMC. In rats with type 2 diabetes, water-based extracts of PM at both 100 and 200 mg/kg was observed to lower high levels of the inflammatory cytokine tumour necrosis factor TNF-α. At 100 mg/kg, PM stem bark methanolic and aqueous extracts demonstrated encouraging anti-inflammatory effectiveness in a rat paw oedema model created by carrageenan. Significant anti-inflammatory action (43.70%) was shown by Pterocarpus marsupium, Pterocarpus santalinus, and Glycyrrhiza glabra hydro-alcoholic extracts found in herbal hydrogels as opposed to the conventional. Additionally, P. marsupium's anti-inflammatory properties have demonstrated great promise. This work assessed the PGE2-inhibitory activity of a P. marsupium extract containing pterostilbene in LPS-stimulated PBMC. Additionally, P. marsupium extract's specific inhibitory efficacy against COX-1/2 was examined.
Memory enhancing activity.
The sickness known as dementia is typically defined as a mental illness that impairs memory and causes a decline in intellectual capacity. It is thought to be one of the main contributing factors to the development of the particular brain illness known as Alzheimer's disease. Chauhan et al. used the elevated plus-maze and Morri's water maze tests to examine the memory-enhancing effects of P. marsupium methanol extract in albino mice at doses of 25 and 50 mg/kg p.o. While extract treatment dramatically boosted the inflexion ratio and decreased transfer latency in the elevated pulse-maze model, it worsened learning and memory deficits in the Morri's water maze model. According to the study, the extract demonstrated the ability to improve memory via facilitating cholinergic transmission.
Anti-alzheimer activity
Excessive synthesis of β-amyloid peptide (Aβ), decreased 463 clearance, and/or poor blood-brain barrier transit can all contribute to Alzheimer's disease. In both cell-free and in vitro experiments, P. erinaceus was found to inhibit 464 the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease by inhibiting Aβ release and α-secretase activity. Furthermore, compound 191 shown modest 466 activity against butyrylcholinesterase (BchE) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE).
Antihyperlipidemic activity
Male Wistar rats without diabetes and those experiencing oxidative stress from alloxan were used to test the effects of combination therapy employing a methanolic extract of Ocimum sanctum leaves and P. marsupium heart wood. A 500 mg/kg b.wt. dose of the methanolic extract of Ocimum sanctum leaves and P. marsupium heart wood has been shown to significantly reduce dyslipidaemia and preserve endogenous antioxidant levels in the female Wistar rat model of oxidative stress-induced diabetes and non-diabetes. 54–55 In albino Wistar rats that had received alloxan monohydrate (150 mg/kg, i.p.) for 14 days to induce diabetes, P. marsupium ethanolic wood and bark extracts (150+150 mg/kg b.wt.) significantly decreased blood glucose and lipid levels.
Antibacterial activity
Bark and leaf extracts from P. marsupium have antimicrobial properties. Four specific Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria were tested against extracts of hexane, ethyl acetate, and methanol. It inhibits Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyrogens, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in vitro. The bacteria were more susceptible to ethyl and methanol extracts than to hexane extracts. The antibacterial activity of both extracts varied according to concentration. Similar findings have been documented, demonstrating that P. marsupium ethanol extracts demonstrated notable antioxidant and anti-ulcer effects in rats.
Toxic effects
Due to its astringent properties, PM is not advised while constipated. The genotoxic evaluation of PM was conducted using both somatic and germ cells because the herbal treatment for diabetes is administered for a longer period of time. According to the findings, the extract was not genotoxic. Mice, rats, and frogs' central nervous systems were examined in relation to (-)-epicatechin, which was extracted from PM. The findings revealed no harmful effects on the heart. Even at greater dosages, (-)-epicatechin showed no adverse effects. An ICMR study team examined PM's antidiabetic effects at a multi-center level and discovered that there were no adverse effects and that blood glucose levels dramatically dropped.
CONCLUSION
Pterocarpus marsupium, also known as the Indian Kino Tree, stands as a testament to the synergy between traditional herbal medicine and modern scientific exploration. Historically revered in Ayurveda and other indigenous medical systems, this tree has been used for centuries to treat a variety of ailments, with a particular focus on its efficacy in managing diabetes and related metabolic disorders. From a taxonomical perspective, Pterocarpus marsupium belongs to the Fabaceae family, which is known for its diverse and valuable plant species. Phytochemically, Pterocarpus marsupium is a powerhouse of bioactive compounds, including flavonoids, tannins, and glycosides, that contribute to its therapeutic effects. The identification of compounds such as pterocarpin and marsupin has paved the way for understanding its medicinal properties at a molecular level. These compounds are primarily responsible for the plant's antidiabetic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial activities, which support its traditional uses and provide a scientific basis for its therapeutic potential. Pharmacologically, Pterocarpus marsupium has demonstrated significant promise in treating Various disease. However, while preclinical studies and traditional uses support its medicinal value, further clinical trials are necessary to fully establish its safety, efficacy, and mechanism of action. In conclusion, Pterocarpus marsupium represents a bridge between ancient healing practices and modern pharmacological research. Its therapeutic potential, especially in the management of diabetes and related diseases, is a promising area of continued research. The combination of historical wisdom, promising phytochemistry, and evolving pharmacological understanding positions Pterocarpus marsupium as a valuable plant with both cultural significance and modern clinical potential.
REFERENCES
Sakshi parsutkar*, Dr. Anjali wankhade, Dr. Vivek Paithankar, Therapeutic Potential of Pterocarpus Marsupium: From Traditional Medicine to Modern Pharmacological Applications with Its Phytochemistry, Int. J. of Pharm. Sci., 2025, Vol 3, Issue 4, 2561-2572. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15258850
10.5281/zenodo.15258850
