Exploring the Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Brahma Kamal: A Comprehensive Review

Ajay Bhagwat , Sujit Tambe , Siddhi Belkar , Rohit Agalawe , Pratiksha Raskar, Swapnil Auti ,

doi:10.5281/zenodo.17421873

Review Paper | Open Access
Volume 03 | Issue 10 | Article Id IJPS/250310344

Exploring the Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Brahma Kamal: A Comprehensive Review
Ajay Bhagwat * Sujit Tambe Siddhi Belkar Rohit Agalawe Pratiksha Raskar Swapnil Auti
Samarth College of Pharmacy, Belhe, Pune, Maharashtra, India.

Abstract

Brahma Kamal typically refers to Saussurea obvallata, which is found in the Himalayan area, as well as other species within the Saussurea genus. Costus, S. Lappa, S. Gossypiphora is a medicinal herb that grows at high altitudes and is traditionally used to treat wounds, relieve pain, and address inflammatory conditions. Recent studies in phytochemistry and pharmacology have identified various bioactive secondary metabolites, including flavonoids, phenolics, sesquiterpene lactones, and alkaloids, that have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. The experimental work involves laboratory tests (such as membrane stabilization, protein denaturation, and nitric oxide inhibition), animal models (including carrageenan/?-carrageenan paw swelling, formalin, and adjuvant arthritis), and studies focused on understanding the effects on oxidative stress, cyclooxygenase/lipoxygenase pathways, NF-?B signaling, and the regulation of inflammasomes. Formulations containing nanoparticles, such as zinc oxide nanoparticles made with Saussurea extracts, have been shown to improve wound healing and reduce inflammation. Although there is promising data from preclinical studies, there is a notable absence of standardized extracts, quantification of phytochemicals, and well-structured clinical trials. Additionally, issues related to toxicity and the conservation of endangered species need to be addressed. This review summarizes information on ethnobotanical background, phytochemistry, experimental evidence of anti-inflammatory effects, suggested mechanisms, formulation strategies, and areas for future research.

Keywords

bioactive secondary metabolites, including flavonoids, phenolics, sesquiterpene lactones, and alkaloids

Introduction

The Himalayan Brahma Kamal, also known as Saussurea obvallata in ethnobotanical references, along with related species of Saussurea, holds a distinctive position where culture, conservation, and pharmacology meet. The plant is highly respected in Himalayan communities for its sacred significance and ritual applications. It has been used in traditional medicine for treating wounds, bruises, fever, and inflammatory conditions, leading to scientific research into its bioactive components and medicinal properties. Ethnobotanical studies indicate several traditional uses of S. Obvallata flowers, rhizomes, and bracts are used for treating wounds, making anti-inflammatory poultices, and addressing pain and respiratory issues. These applications support a cultural basis for current research in pharmacology.[1] Members of the genus Saussurea are known to have a wide range of chemical compounds. Research has been conducted on various species within this genus, such as S. Obvallata, S. Costus, S. Lappa and S. Research on involucrata has consistently identified key types of components that likely account for its anti-inflammatory effects. These consist of sesquiterpene lactones, other terpenoids, flavonoids, phenolic acids, lignans, and coumarins. Sesquiterpene lactones are often associated with anti-inflammatory and immune-modulating effects due to their ability to influence signalling pathways, such as NF-κB and MAPKs, and to interact with enzymes and transcription factors that regulate the production of pro-inflammatory substances. Flavonoids and similar polyphenols provide antioxidant properties and help eliminate free radicals, which can reduce inflammation caused by oxidative stress. The consistent finding of these chemical groups in Saussurea species offers solid support for the plants' known biological effects.[2]

Fig 1: Brahma Kamal Flowers

Research in experimental pharmacology, conducted both in laboratory settings and within living organisms, has started to confirm traditional beliefs and identify potential mechanisms. Compounds from various Saussurea species reduce classical indicators of inflammation, including nitric oxide (NO) production in macrophages stimulated by LPS. They also decrease the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, and lower the expression of inducible enzymes like COX-2 and iNOS. Research using animal models has shown that Saussurea extracts or their individual components can reduce paw swelling and inflammatory pain behaviors caused by carrageenan or formalin. These functional assays, although varying in extraction methods and models, suggest that Saussurea extracts have a multi-target anti-inflammatory effect that includes enzyme inhibition, cytokine suppression, and antioxidant activity. [3] The anti-inflammatory effects of Saussurea species are related to their underlying mechanisms. seems to involve multiple factors. Sesquiterpene lactones can attach to thiol groups on proteins and block the activation of NF-κB, which stops the transcription of various pro-inflammatory genes. Flavonoids often function as enzyme inhibitors (such as COX and LOX) and as scavengers of free radicals. Additionally, some terpenoids interact with ion channels and cellular signaling pathways to decrease the recruitment of immune cells and the release of mediators. Recent formulations of nanoparticles, such as zinc oxide nanoparticles created using S. Preliminary studies indicate that obvallata extracts have enhanced wound-healing and anti-inflammatory properties. This suggests that contemporary delivery methods can improve the effectiveness of traditional extracts and warrant additional research. Although the molecular details of many components of Saussurea are not fully understood, the way they interact corresponds with known pharmacological processes that help decrease acute inflammation and oxidative stress.[2]

Fig 2: Brahma Kamal Tree and Flowers Inner Sight

The Saussurea genus shows encouraging bioactivity data, but there are significant gaps and challenges that need to be addressed in any thorough review. There is significant variation in chemical composition at the species level, so the activity observed for one Saussurea species may not apply to others. It cannot be assumed that costus applies to S. Obvallata lacks direct comparative information regarding its phytochemical and pharmacological properties. Many studies depend on basic extracts that lack proper standardization, making it difficult to reproduce results and identify which components are responsible for the effects observed. There is a lack of thoroughly conducted clinical data, and transitioning findings from laboratory and small animal studies to well-controlled human research continues to be a significant challenge. Brahma Kamal is a plant that thrives in alpine environments, and there are conservation issues in some areas where it naturally grows. It is important to address sustainable sourcing and the effects of increased harvesting for medicinal or commercial use while also conducting pharmacological research. These considerations outline the key areas for future efforts: comparative chemoprofiling, bioassay-guided isolation of active compounds, studies on molecular mechanisms, development of standardized extracts, and conservation measures that are managed ethically.[4] current thorough review should combine traditional knowledge with modern science. Ethnopharmacology aids in understanding preparation methods and uses, phytochemistry identifies potential bioactive compounds, pharmacology evaluates effectiveness and mechanisms of action, and formulation science focuses on delivery and strength. Due to the complex nature of Saussurea extracts, systems biology methods such as transcriptomics and proteomics, along with network pharmacology, are effective in showing how various components interact to influence inflammatory pathways. By focusing on species identification, extraction methods, standardized testing, and conservation principles, the Saussurea genus, represented culturally by the Brahma Kamal, presents a valuable opportunity for finding new anti-inflammatory compounds and creating evidence-based, sustainable plant-based treatments.[5-10]

Traditional Uses of Brahma Kamal

The genus Saussurea, which is part of the Asteraceae family, contains various Himalayan species that are valued for their medicinal properties. Notable examples include Saussurea obvallata, known as Brahma Kamal, and several high-altitude species referred to as "snow lotus." Involucrata, S. laniceps and S. "Medusa." These plants have been valued for their anti-inflammatory and pain-relieving properties in Himalayan, Tibetan, and Central Asian traditions for a long time. Ethnobotanical studies conducted in Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, and nearby areas provide information about the flowers and leaves of S. Obvallata is processed into poultices or decoctions for external use on wounds, cuts, and inflamed areas, aiding in healing and alleviating pain and redness. Tibetan and Amchi healers also use S. Obvallata infusions are used to relieve rheumatic pain, joint stiffness, and muscle inflammation, which local medical theory considers to be signs of an imbalance related to "cold" or "damp" conditions. In Traditional Chinese Medicine, Saussurea involucrata, commonly referred to as “Xue Lian Hua” or “Snow Lotus,” is an important component in treatments for arthritis, injuries, frostbite, and other inflammatory conditions. This herb is traditionally thought to improve blood circulation, eliminate cold, and alleviate pain. Aerial parts are used to make decoctions or alcoholic tinctures for internal use, while pastes are applied externally to swollen or bruised areas[11-13]

Other species like S. "laniceps and S." Medusa is also documented in Tibetan medical texts for its use in treating rheumatism, chronic joint inflammation, and muscle swelling. The origins of S. Lappa (also known as) Costus speciosus, also known as Aucklandia lappa in some classifications, has been used historically in both Ayurveda and Unani medicine. It is recommended for treating inflammatory conditions related to the skin and respiratory system, such as bronchial irritation, asthma, and arthritis pain. Powdered roots or water-based extracts are usually mixed with ghee, honey, or other plant powders and consumed orally. This method aims to address inflammation and oxidative stress throughout the body. Practitioners in the Himalayas also report using pastes made from Saussurea for treating boils, abscesses, and swelling from insect bites, suggesting that it is applied to the skin for its anti-inflammatory properties. [14-16]

Traditional records consistently indicate that Saussurea species are used for various anti-inflammatory purposes. They are applied externally for wounds and swelling, as well as taken internally to address arthritis, fevers, and respiratory inflammation. The traditional medical uses of Saussurea obvallata served as the basis for contemporary pharmacological research, which has since validated its notable anti-inflammatory, pain-relieving, and antioxidant properties in its extracts. Involucrata and S. "Lappa."

Table 1: Traditional Uses Related to Inflammation

Species / Common Name	Traditional Use Related to Inflammation	Form / Preparation	Region / System of Medicine
Saussurea obvallata (Brahma Kamal)	Applied on wounds, cuts, inflamed swellings to reduce pain and redness	Crushed leaves/flowers as poultice or decoction	Himalayan folk medicine (Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh)
S. obvallata	Relief from rheumatic pain, joint stiffness, muscle inflammation	Decoction / infusion (oral use)	Tibetan and Amchi medicine
Saussurea involucrata (“Snow Lotus”)	Arthritis, traumatic injury, frostbite, inflammatory pain	Decoction or tincture (internal and external use)	Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM)
S. laniceps, S. medusa	Rheumatism, chronic joint inflammation, muscular swelling	Whole plant extract/infusion	Tibetan traditional medicine
Saussurea lappa (Costus)	Arthritis, asthma, skin inflammation, bronchial irritation	Root powder with ghee/honey; aqueous extract	Ayurveda and Unani systems
S. obvallata, S. laniceps	Localized boils, abscesses, insect-bite swellings	Paste applied externally	Himalayan folk and tribal practices

Phytochemistry — Compounds Likely Responsible for Anti-Inflammatory Effects
1. Costunolide (sesquiterpene lactone)

Costunolide is a bicyclic sesquiterpene lactone obtained from the roots or root-based preparations of Saussurea lappa and similar species. It is one of the most researched anti-inflammatory compounds in this genus. Research indicates that costunolide reduces the production of nitric oxide (NO) and pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6) in activated macrophages. It also inhibits signaling through the NF-κB pathway as well as the expression of COX-2 and iNOS in cell models. In animal studies, it has been shown to lower inflammatory markers in rodents. These actions position costunolide as a strong candidate for the anti-inflammatory effects associated with Saussurea extracts.[17]

Source: S. lappa / costus (roots).
Mechanisms: inhibition of NF-κB, downregulation of iNOS/COX-2, reduced NO & cytokines.
Evidence: in vitro macrophage/LPS assays, some rodent models, and quantification studies.
1. Dehydrocostus lactone (sesquiterpene lactone)

Dehydrocostus lactone (DCL) is a common sesquiterpene lactone found in the roots of Saussurea and has strong anti-inflammatory effects. DCL reduces the release of pro-inflammatory substances (such as NO and PGE?) and inhibits signaling pathways like NF-κB and MAPKs in immune cells. Additionally, it affects components of the inflammasome in certain studies. DCL commonly appears alongside costunolide, so extracts that contain a high concentration of these lactones often show significant anti-inflammatory properties.[17]

Source: S. lappa, S. costus.
Mechanisms: NF-κB and MAPK inhibition, reduced iNOS/COX-2, lowered NO/PGE?.
Evidence: cell culture assays, biochemical quantification, animal pharmacology reports.
1. Alantolactone & related sesquiterpene lactones

Alantolactone and various similar sesquiterpene lactones obtained from Saussurea species have anti-inflammatory effects. They achieve this by decreasing the production of chemokines and cytokines, such as IL-8 and MCP-1, inhibiting the phosphorylation of STAT1 in keratinocytes stimulated by cytokines, and lowering levels of NO and TNF-α in macrophages. These lactones influence processes both at the beginning (signal transduction) and at the end (transcription factors) to reduce inflammatory responses.[18]

Source: S. lappa and other Saussurea.
Mechanisms: inhibition of STAT1, suppression of chemokine production, NF-κB/MAPK effects.
Evidence: in vitro cytokine/LPS models; mechanistic cell studies.
1. Total flavonoids (quercetin/kaempferol derivatives and others)

Flavonoid extracts from Saussurea, particularly S. Involucrata and S. Obvallata exhibit anti-inflammatory properties mainly through their antioxidant effects and the suppression of pro-inflammatory signaling. They reduce levels of nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) while inhibiting the activation of p65 (NF-κB), c-Jun, and IRF3 in macrophages stimulated by lipopolysaccharides (LPS). Flavonoids help by directly neutralizing free radicals and by influencing inflammatory gene expression. [19]

Source: flowers/leaves/whole-plant extracts of S. involucrata, S. obvallata.
Mechanisms: antioxidant + inhibition of NF-κB, AP-1 (c-Jun), IRF3; lower NO & cytokines.
Evidence: in vitro RAW264.7/LPS studies, fraction/activity correlation.
1. Phenylpropanoids & phenolic acids (e.g., caffeic, chlorogenic derivatives)

Several species of Saussurea contain phenolic acids and simple phenylpropanoids. play a role in reducing inflammation primarily by acting as antioxidants, scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS), and decreasing the release of pro-inflammatory mediators in laboratory cell tests. These compounds frequently work together with flavonoids and terpenoids in complete extracts. [20,21]

Source: aerial parts, flowers, leaves (e.g., S. obvallata, S. involucrata).
Mechanisms: antioxidant/ROS scavenging, indirect downregulation of inflammatory signalling.
Evidence: GC-MS / phytochemical profiling + in vitro antioxidant/anti-inflammatory assays.
1. Lignans, coumarins and other phenolics

Various lignans, coumarins, and related phenolic compounds have been identified from S. Involucrata and related species show moderate anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects mainly by influencing cytokine production and neutralizing free radicals. Although they are individually less effective than sesquiterpene lactones, they play a significant role in multi-constituent extracts. [22]

Source: S. involucrata (extensive phytochemical investigations).
Mechanisms: cytokine modulation, antioxidant effects.
Evidence: isolation studies with bioactivity screening; fraction activity correlation.
1. Sterols & triterpenoids (e.g., β-sitosterol, friedelin type compounds)

The sterols and triterpenoids found in Saussurea extracts may have slight anti-inflammatory effects by stabilizing cell membranes and influencing eicosanoid pathways. They might also work together with more potent substances to decrease swelling and the activity of inflammatory enzymes in animal studies. Their role is typically more supportive than central.[23]

Source: various Saussurea species (leaves/roots).
Mechanisms: modulation of eicosanoid pathways, membrane/enzymatic stabilization.
Evidence: phytochemical identification + occasional bioassays.
1. Polysaccharides and glycosides (immunomodulatory fractions)

Polysaccharides and polysaccharide-glycosides with high molecular weight have been documented from Saussurea species. They can demonstrate effects that modulate the immune system and reduce inflammation, such as by calming excessive innate responses, and are frequently identified as active components in traditional water-based extracts. Their function usually involves modifying the immune response instead of directly inhibiting enzymes.[24]

Source: whole plant / water extracts (notably S. involucrata).
Mechanisms: immunomodulation, reduced pro-inflammatory mediator release.
Evidence: fractionation studies; polysaccharide activity assays.

Table 2: Major Phytochemicals in Saussurea spp. (Brahma Kamal) Contributing to Anti-Inflammatory Activity

Compound Class	Representative Compounds	Mechanism	Source (Saussurea spp.)
Sesquiterpene lactones	Costunolide, Dehydrocostus lactone, Alantolactone	Inhibit NF-κB/MAPK/STAT pathways; reduce NO, TNF-α, IL-6; suppress COX-2/iNOS	Roots (S. lappa, S. costus)
Flavonoids	Quercetin, Kaempferol derivatives	Antioxidant; inhibit NF-κB/AP-1; reduce cytokines & NO	Flowers, leaves (S. involucrata, S. obvallata)
Phenolic acids	Caffeic acid, Chlorogenic acid	ROS scavenging; downregulate inflammatory enzymes	Aerial parts, flowers (S. obvallata)
Lignans & Coumarins	Syringaresinol, Scopoletin	Moderate cytokine modulation; antioxidant	S. involucrata
Sterols & Triterpenoids	β-Sitosterol, Friedelin	Mild anti-inflammatory; eicosanoid modulation	Leaves, roots
Polysaccharides/Glycosides	Saussurea polysaccharides	Immunomodulatory; reduce pro-inflammatory cytokines	Whole plant / aqueous extracts

Antioxidant And Anti-Inflammatory Properties

Studies show that Brahma Kamal has notable antioxidant properties, which are important for reducing oxidative stress, a major factor in inflammation. The extracts from the plant have shown the ability to neutralize free radicals, as indicated by tests like DPPH and hydrogen peroxide scavenging assays. These activities indicate that Brahma Kamal may counteract reactive oxygen species, which can lower oxidative damage and the resulting inflammatory responses.[25]. The plant's anti-inflammatory properties are linked to its phytochemicals, such as flavonoids and phenolic compounds. These bioactive molecules can influence inflammatory processes, possibly by reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines and enzymes. This adjustment helps reduce inflammation at the cellular level.[26]

1. Upstream Attenuation of Inflammation

Upstream attenuation of inflammation involves the prevention of initial signaling processes that trigger the inflammatory response. The bioactive compounds in Brahma Kamal may affect the activation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), which play a key role in the transcription of genes that promote inflammation. Brahma Kamal can reduce inflammation by influencing these pathways, which helps prevent the production of inflammatory substances. [27]

Phytochemical Profile

Analysis of Brahma Kamal extracts using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) has revealed various compounds that have established antioxidant and anti-inflammatory characteristics. Key examples of these include nerolidol, methyl acetate, and piperine. Nerolidol is known for its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, which correspond with the therapeutic effects seen in Brahma Kamal.[28]

1. Eicosanoid Pathways: COX and LOX

Eicosanoids are active lipid substances that come from arachidonic acid (AA) through the enzymatic processes of COX and LOX pathways. The COX pathway produces prostanoids, including prostaglandins and thromboxanes, whereas the LOX pathway produces leukotrienes. These eicosanoids are important for inflammation, immune responses, and different bodily functions.[29]

Potential Modulatory Effects of Brahma Kamal

While there are limited direct studies on the effects of Brahma Kamal on COX and LOX pathways, its traditional application in herbal medicine indicates that it may have anti-inflammatory properties. Numerous plants with comparable uses have substances that can affect the production of eicosanoids. Some phytochemicals can inhibit the enzymes COX-2 and 5-LOX, which helps to regulate inflammatory responses.[30]

1. NF-κB and MAPK Signalling Pathways
NF-κB Pathway: This transcription factor plays a key role in controlling immune responses, inflammation, and cell survival. The process of activation includes the phosphorylation and breakdown of IκB proteins, which results in the release and movement of NF-κB dimers, like p65/p50, into the nucleus. Impairment of NF-κB signaling is associated with several inflammatory diseases and cancers.
MAPK Pathway: The MAPK pathway includes proteins such as ERK, JNK, and p38. It transmits signals from outside the cell to the nucleus, affecting gene expression that is associated with growth, differentiation, and responses to stress. Excessive activation of MAPK signaling is linked to ongoing inflammation and the development of tumors.

Brahma Kamal’s Impact on Inflammatory Pathways

Initial research suggests that compounds from Brahma Kamal may have anti-inflammatory properties by influencing NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways. A study on a related compound, SIP-II, showed that it can regulate these pathways, indicating that Brahma Kamal extracts may have similar capabilities.[31]

Therapeutic Implications

Brahma Kamal may have anti-inflammatory effects that could be helpful in treating conditions associated with high levels of inflammation, including rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, and some types of cancer. Compounds derived from Brahma Kamal may enhance traditional treatments by targeting the NF-κB and MAPK pathways, which could help lessen side effects and improve patient results.

1. NLRP3 Inflammasome Modulation

The NLRP3 inflammasome is a complex made up of multiple proteins that plays a role in the innate immune response. It is essential for activating caspase-1, which results in the maturation and release of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18, and triggers a type of programmed cell death called pyroptosis. Impairment of NLRP3 inflammasome function has been associated with several inflammatory conditions, such as Alzheimer's disease, type 2 diabetes, and atherosclerosis.[32]

Modulation of the NLRP3 inflammasome can be achieved through various approaches:

Natural Compounds: Some compounds derived from plants have demonstrated the ability to inhibit the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. Brazilin, a natural compound, has been recognized as an inhibitor of the NLRP3 inflammasome, successfully reducing both the priming and activation stages in cultured macrophages.[33]
Pharmacological Inhibitors: Researchers are studying synthetic inhibitors that focus on the NLRP3 inflammasome. Dapansutrile selectively blocks the NLRP3 ATPase, preventing the assembly of the inflammasome and the associated inflammatory signaling, while not influencing other inflammasomes such as NLRC4 and AIM2. Therapeutic Strategies: In conditions like Alzheimer's disease, focusing on the NLRP3 inflammasome has been suggested as a treatment approach to reduce neuroinflammation and slow down the progression of the disease. This involves the use of IL-1β inhibitors and new small molecules.[34]
1. Immunomodulatory Effects of Brahma Kamal

There are limited extensive studies on the immune-modulating effects of Brahma Kamal, but some research has investigated the general immune-modulating properties of specific compounds present in plants. Kaempferol, a flavonoid found in many plants, has been researched for its possible effects on immune responses. A study on diabetic retinopathy found that kaempferol treatment caused changes in the characteristics and functions of immune cells, especially microglia. This shift contributed to an anti-inflammatory environment and slowed the progression of the disease. This demonstrates the ability of plant-based compounds to affect the behavior of immune cells.[35]

Macrophage Phenotypic Effects

Macrophages have the ability to change their characteristics and take on different forms depending on the stimuli they encounter. The classical M1 phenotype is linked to inflammation, whereas the M2 phenotype is related to tissue repair and anti-inflammatory activities. Research indicates that biomaterials can affect the polarization of macrophages. Collagen scaffolds were observed to suppress the classic M1 phenotype without encouraging the classic M2 phenotype. In contrast, collagen scaffolds treated with interferon-gamma promoted the M1 phenotype while inhibiting the M2 phenotype.[36]

The changes in macrophage types have also been studied in relation to tissue engineering. Experiments involving different types of macrophages and preosteoblastic cells showed that changing the polarization of macrophages could improve bone-forming activity. This indicates that adjusting macrophage characteristics may have therapeutic benefits for tissue repair.[37]

Formulation Advances: Nanoparticles And Topical Systems
1. Therapeutic Profile of Brahma Kamal

Brahma Kamal has traditionally been used in folk medicine to treat several conditions, such as dysentery, rheumatism, and cerebral palsy. Phytochemical studies have found various bioactive compounds in the plant, including flavonoids, glycosides, alkaloids, and phenols, which are responsible for its antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties.[38]

1. Nanoparticle-Based Formulations

Recent developments have aimed at improving the bioavailability and effectiveness of the active compounds in Brahma Kamal using nanotechnology. A significant study created zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles by using Brahma Kamal extract as a reducing agent. The ZnO nanoparticles showed improved wound healing and antibacterial effects, indicating the plant's potential use in nanomedicine.[39]

1. Topical Delivery Systems

The use of nanoparticles combined with natural plant extracts in topical applications appears to be promising. A study developed a gel that includes cerium oxide (CeO?), silver (Ag), and ZnO nanoparticles, along with antioxidants derived from bitter melon, ginger, and neem. This formulation showed improved wound healing and reduced inflammation in an animal model of psoriasis.[40]

1. Characterization and Evaluation

The analysis of these nanoparticle-based formulations usually includes methods like UV-visible spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering (DLS), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The analyses verify that the nanoparticles are appropriately sized, stable, and uniform, making them suitable for use in therapy.

Safety & Toxicity

Very limited human toxicology data. The majority of published research on S. Research on obvallata includes studies in ethnobotany, phytochemistry, and in vitro or animal pharmacology; however, there is a lack of formal clinical safety or dose-finding trials conducted in humans. Reviews consistently highlight that there is a lack of toxicological evaluation (including acute and chronic toxicity, genotoxicity, and reproductive toxicity) and that more research in this area is necessary.[41]
Bioactivity ≠ proven safe in people. Multiple studies indicate that extracts or animal models exhibit antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-hypoxia, and other properties. Recent research has also focused on green-synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles using S. Obvallata extracts demonstrate biological effects; however, this does not confirm safe dosage levels for humans or indicate a lack of negative side effects. Applying laboratory results to assess human safety is not reliable without conducting clinical trials.[39]
No well-documented clinical adverse-effect reports in mainstream literature, but absence of evidence is not evidence of safety. The traditional use of topical applications and rhizome offerings is widespread, but scientific research on toxicity is limited and inadequate. Researchers are specifically requesting systematic studies in toxicology.[42]
Potential risks to consider (precautionary):

There are unrecognized interactions with prescription medications, and the effects on metabolic enzymes are not well understood. There is a lack of information regarding safety during pregnancy, breastfeeding, in children, and for individuals with chronic illnesses. Allergic or contact reactions can occur with any plant product, so practitioners should be attentive to potential hypersensitivity. Preparations made from wild-harvested materials may be contaminated by soil microbes or heavy metals unless they are processed with quality controls in place.

Conservation concerns — threats, status, and evidence

High pressure from overharvesting. The flower and underground parts are valued for cultural and medicinal purposes, such as temple offerings, traditional medicine, and local sales. As a result, many communities have engaged in frequent collection of these parts, which can sometimes be unsustainable. Several regional evaluations and reviews indicate significant local collection pressure.[1]
Habitat specificity + climate change = vulnerability. Please provide the text you would like me to paraphrase. Obvallata is a species that typically thrives in alpine environments, usually found at elevations between approximately 3,000 and 4,600 meters. Alpine habitats are restricted and highly vulnerable to rising temperatures, changes in snow and precipitation patterns, and modifications in land use. These factors decrease the availability of suitable habitat and alter the timing of flowering, increasing the risk to conservation efforts.[1]
Inconsistent global conservation listing but recognized as a priority locally. Worldwide assessment by the IUCN for S. Obvallata is not thoroughly documented on public IUCN pages, with some sources indicating that it has "no conservation status." However, regional assessments and various authors classify it as an endangered or high-priority medicinal species for both in-situ and ex-situ conservation due to its small populations and significant usage. In summary, global status records are not fully complete, but local and regional information indicates significant issues.[1]
Cultural demand amplifies collection peaks. Please provide the text you would like me to paraphrase. Harvesting typically reaches its highest level during religious festivals and pilgrimages, such as local events where flowers are presented. This leads to a significant removal of reproductive plants at critical times for population recovery.[42]

Limitations

Brahma Kamal (Saussurea obvallata) has been used in Ayurveda and local medicinal practices to address various health issues, including wounds, paralysis, fever, and heart conditions. This is attributed to its properties that reduce inflammation, combat oxidative stress, and modulate immune responses. Nonetheless, there are several constraints on its use for medical purposes. The plant is uncommon and only grows in high-altitude areas of the Himalayas, which makes it challenging to obtain consistently for widespread therapeutic use. Secondly, excessive harvesting for medicinal use poses a risk to its population, leading to limitations on sustainable use and requiring careful conservation efforts. Thirdly, although initial studies show potential beneficial effects of the medication, there are few extensive clinical trials involving humans. This leads to a lack of adequate scientific evidence regarding the proper dosage, effectiveness, and safety. Additionally, changes in phytochemical composition caused by environmental factors can influence the uniformity and effectiveness of medicinal extracts. These factors together limit the effective medical use of Brahma Kamal, highlighting the importance of regulated cultivation, standardization, and thorough pharmacological studies to safely utilize its healing properties.[43-49]

CONCLUSION

The Brahma Kamal, belonging to the Saussurea species, especially S. Obvallata demonstrates potential anti-inflammatory properties, as indicated by traditional uses, chemical composition, laboratory studies, and evidence from animal testing. The mechanisms involve antioxidant effects, adjustments to NF-κB/MAPK signaling pathways, a decrease in eicosanoid production, and potential regulation of inflammasomes. The current evidence is not fully developed: many studies employ non-standardized extracts, there is significant variation in species and methods used, and there is a lack of mechanistic data specific to S. The information on obvallata is restricted, and there is a lack of clinical data involving humans. To transition from encouraging preclinical findings to safe and effective treatments, researchers need to focus on standardizing phytochemicals, understanding mechanisms, conducting thorough safety tests, implementing conservation efforts, and designing well-structured clinical trials.

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Janardhan honed , Tejas Dawange , Aarti Gadekar . Unveiling antibacterial, antioxidant, phytochemicals of Saussurea obvallata and exploring its antidiabetic effects, International Journal of Biotechnology and Microbiology, 2024Volume 6, Issue 1, 2024, Page No. 12-19. https://www.biotechnologyjournals.com/assets/archives/2024/vol6issue1/6006.pdf
Negi R, Sharma B, Kaur S, Kaur T, Khan SS, Kumar S, Ramniwas S, Rustagi S, Singh S, Rai AK, Kour D. Microbial antagonists: diversity, formulation and applications for management of pest–pathogens. Egyptian Journal of Biological Pest Control. 2023 Oct 12;33(1):105.
Liu S, Wang X, Liu M, Zhu J. Towards better analysis of machine learning models: A visual analytics perspective. Visual Informatics. 2017 Mar 1;1(1):48-56.
Purohit H, Castillo C, Imran M, Pandey R. Social-EOC: Serviceability model to rank social media requests for emergency operation centers. In2018 IEEE/ACM international conference on advances in social networks analysis and mining (ASONAM) 2018 Aug 28 (pp. 119-126). IEEE.
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Kumar S, Ahlawat W, Kumar R, Dilbaghi N. Graphene, carbon nanotubes, zinc oxide and gold as elite nanomaterials for fabrication of biosensors for healthcare. Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 2015 Aug 15;70:498-503.
Dwivedi YK, Hughes L, Ismagilova E, Aarts G, Coombs C, Crick T, Duan Y, Dwivedi R, Edwards J, Eirug A, Galanos V. Artificial Intelligence (AI): Multidisciplinary perspectives on emerging challenges, opportunities, and agenda for research, practice and policy. International journal of information management. 2021 Apr 1;57:101994.
Rao Vadaparthi PR, Kumar K, Sarma VU, Hussain QA, Babu KS. Estimation of Costunolide and Dehydrocostus Lactone in Saussurea lappa and its Polyherbal Formulations followed by their Stability Studies Using HPLC-DAD. Pharmacogn Mag. 2015 Jan-Mar;11(41):180-90.
Kaur, R., Sharma, P., Bhardwaj, U. et al. Dehydrocostus lactone: a comprehensive review on its isolation, chemical transformations, and pharmacological potential. Discov. Chem. 2, 131 (2025).
Yan, Li-Shan1; Wang, Li1; Cheng, Brian Chi-Yan2; Ding, Yu1; Kong, Jing1; Wang, Qing Gao3; Fu, Xiu-Qiong4; Zhang, Shuo-Feng1; Luo, Gan1,; Zhang, Yi1,. Total flavonoids from Saussurea involucrata attenuate inflammation in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages via modulating p65, c-Jun, and IRF3 signaling pathways. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine 11(6):p 273-284, June 2021.
Singhal S, Agarwal A. Industrial utilization and promotion of medicinal plants in India. In: Chopra AK, Khanna DR, Prasad G, Malik DS, Bhutiani R, editors. Medicinal Plant: Conservation Cultivation and Utilization. New Delhi: Daya Publishing House; 2007. p. 325–30.
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Wang YF, Ni ZY, Dong M, Cong B, Shi QW, Gu YC, Kiyota H. Secondary metabolites of plants from the genus Saussurea: chemistry and biological activity. Chemistry & biodiversity. 2010 Nov;7(11):2623-59.
Chik WI, Zhu L, Fan LL, Yi T, Zhu GY, Gou XJ, Tang YN, Xu J, Yeung WP, Zhao ZZ, Yu ZL. Saussurea involucrata: A review of the botany, phytochemistry and ethnopharmacology of a rare traditional herbal medicine. Journal of ethnopharmacology. 2015 Aug 22;172:44-60.
Chik WI, Zhu L, Fan LL, Yi T, Zhu GY, Gou XJ, Tang YN, Xu J, Yeung WP, Zhao ZZ, Yu ZL, Chen HB. Saussurea involucrata: A review of the botany, phytochemistry and ethnopharmacology of a rare traditional herbal medicine. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015 Aug 22;172:44-60.
Semwal, P., Painuli, S. Antioxidant, antimicrobial, and GC-MS profiling of Saussurea obvallata (Brahma Kamal) from Uttarakhand Himalaya. Clin Phytosci 5, 12 (2019).
Kumar H, Pathania K. Mystic Marvel: A Review on Brahma Kamal.
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Yamaguchi A, Botta E, Holinstat M. Eicosanoids in inflammation in the blood and the vessel. Frontiers in pharmacology. 2022 Sep 27;13:997403.
Kumar HP, Panda P, Karunakar P, Shiksha K, Singh L, Ramesh N, Usha T, Middha SK. Potential Cyclooxygenase (COX-2) enzyme inhibitors from Myrica nagi-from in-silico to in-vitro investigation. Pharmacognosy Magazine. 2019;15(64).
Kumar J, Pundir M. Phytochemistry and pharmacology of Saussurea genus (Saussurea lappa, Saussurea costus, Saussurea obvallata, Saussurea involucrata). Materials Today: Proceedings. 2022 Jan 1;56:1173-81.
Yang Y, Wang H, Kouadir M, Song H, Shi F. Recent advances in the mechanisms of NLRP3 inflammasome activation and its inhibitors. Cell death & disease. 2019 Feb 12;10(2):128.
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Li Z, Gong C. NLRP3 inflammasome in Alzheimer’s disease: molecular mechanisms and emerging therapies. Frontiers in Immunology. 2025 Apr 7;16:1583886.
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Blatt SE, Lurier EB, Risser GE, Spiller KL. Characterizing the Macrophage Response to Immunomodulatory Biomaterials Through Gene Set Analyses. Tissue Eng Part C Methods. 2020 Mar;26(3):156-169.
Loi F, Córdova LA, Zhang R, Pajarinen J, Lin TH, Goodman SB, Yao Z. The effects of immunomodulation by macrophage subsets on osteogenesis in vitro. Stem cell research & therapy. 2016 Jan 22;7(1):15.
Semwal BC. A Compressive Review on Therapeutic Potential, Phytochemical and Traditional Usage Of Brahma Kamal. African Journal of Biomedical Research. 2025;28(1):117-24.
Moalwi A, Naik K, Muddapur UM, Aldoah B, AlWadai HH, Alamri AM, Alsareii SA, Mahnashi MH, Shaikh IA, Khan AA, More SS. Harnessing the Power of Saussurea obvallata Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles for Accelerated Wound Healing and Antimicrobial Action. Int J Nanomedicine. 2024 Dec 5;19:13071-13094.
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Badhe, N., Maniyar, S., Kadale, P., Kale, R., Bhagwat, A. and Doke, R.R., Advancements in nanotechnology for glaucoma detection and treatment: A focus on biosensors, IOP monitoring, and nano-drug delivery systems.
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