View Article

Abstract

Acne is a multicausal dermatological condition in people of different age groups that tends to produce physical pain and psychological distress. Traditional treatment measures, such as topical and systemic drugs, have proven effective but are commonly related to side effects, patient compliance issues, and the development of antibiotic resistance. Recent developments in nanotechnology, especially nanogels, have created new avenues for the treatment of acne by facilitating targeted drug delivery, controlled release, and enhanced skin penetration. Customized nanogel formulations provide a new strategy that individualizes treatment according to patient requirements, optimizing therapeutic effects with reduced side effects. This review considers the position of tailored nanogel-based therapies in acne treatment, their strengths compared to traditional therapies, how they can solve present limitations in treatments, and where research is heading in this emerging field.

Keywords

Acne, Nanogels, Personalized formulation, Targeted drug delivery, Controlled release, Antibiotic resistance, Dermatological condition

Introduction

Skin disease acne presents as a persistent inflammatory condition that affects hair follicles and sebaceous glands due to Propionibacterium acnes colonization and the resulting inflammatory response [1]. The development of acne results from diverse skin microbes, including Propionibacterium acnes and Malassezia species, which impact sebum production and both comedones generation and inflammation formation in the skin tissue [2]. Acne development symptoms develop due to Propionibacterium acnes which exists as a human skin bacterium that lives alongside humans. Acne represents a widespread skin issue that affects everyone across different age groups, according to the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010, which recorded a global prevalence rate of 9.38%. Pustules, papules, and comedones form part of acne, alongside cysts and nodules, which appear only in severe cases. This dermatological condition is the most frequent skin diagnosis treated by medical professionals, who work with dermatological patients, as its occurrence mainly targets young people throughout adolescence and early adulthood, while existing beyond treatment years [1-2]. Nanogels form through physical and chemical crosslinking between polymers and hydrogels produced at nanometer dimensions, ranging from 20 to 200 nm. The unique characteristics of these nanogels include a significant surface area and hygroscopic properties, as well as a deformable morphology. The three-dimensional structure of nanogels enables them to release medications and liquids or polymers in controlled, sustained deliveries. This specific structure allows them to hold molecules that are larger in size. Because nanogels transport drugs, they establish biomolecular bond interactions, which involve hydrophobic contacts, hydrogen bonds, and salt bridges with pharmaceutical compounds. Nanogels possess exclusive characteristics of both solid and liquid phases simultaneously in their material composition. The treatment impact is directly proportional to the amount of time nanoparticles spend attached to the skin after being captured inside nanogel structures [3]. Personalized care plays a crucial role in managing chronic skin conditions, as the success of treatment largely depends on how well patients stick to their prescribed routines. Several factors can influence treatment adherence, including the patient's own characteristics and beliefs, the relationship between the healthcare provider and the patient, and aspects related to the treatment itself. These aspects include how effective the treatment is, its acceptability, side effects, how easy it is to tolerate, how often it needs to be used, the duration of the treatment, and how it is administered [4].  

Current acne treatment is multi-faceted and targeted at the severity and type of acne. For mild cases that present with many comedones, topical retinoids such as adapalene or tretinoin are first-line treatments, often with a progression to systemic isotretinoin when needed. Benzoyl peroxide is the first-line treatment for papulopustular acne, and it may be used in combination with topical antibiotics or retinoids. In nodulocystic acne, oral tetracyclines are given, and isotretinoin is reserved for severe cases. Treatments of acne scars also include non-ablative laser therapy and chemical peels. The choice of treatment is determined by the specific clinical manifestations of acne and must balance efficacy with minimizing side effects [5].

Classification of acne

Table: Clinical classification of acne [6-8]

Sn

Type

Type of Injury

Type of Acne

Degree

Gravity

1

Inflammatory

Pustule

Papular-pustular

II

Moderate

Pimple

Nodule

 

Nodular

III

Moderate to severe

Scar

IV or conglobate

Severe

Cyst

V or fulminant

Serious

2.

Non-inflammatory

Blackhead

Comedonica

I

Mild

Pathophysiology of Acne

  1. The sebaceous gland

Sebum production is regulated by various receptors in the sebaceous gland. In addition to histamine receptor activated by histamines, DHT receptor activated by androgens and corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH) receptor which are mainly activated by stress [9]. Recent research has identified three more: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARα, β, and γ) are activated by free fatty acids and cholesterol, IGF-1 receptor stimulated by sugar, and the leptin receptor triggered by fat [10]. Leptin, a hormone linked to lipid metabolism and inflammation, promotes lipid droplet formation and induces proinflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-8), suggesting a connection between diet and inflammatory acne. Studies also indicate a correlation between high BMI and acne risk, particularly in adolescent girls, though further evidence is needed [11].

  1. Peripheral hyperandrogenia

Women with hyperandrogenism show their acne symptoms before their menstruation cycle and maintain elevated serum DHEAS concentrations and raised antimullerian hormone together with vellus hair growth at their upper lips and peri-ocular areas and around their cheeks [12]. The health ministry's regulatory change in 2013 which reached French participants caused acne symptoms to worsen for 83.9% of people due to peripheral hyperandrogenia activated androgen receptor mechanisms [13]. Research demonstrated that spironolactone holds greater promise than isotretinoin since it regulates sebum that hormones trigger and controls hair growth simultaneously. The pilot study demonstrated that sixteen women taking 75-150 mg per day of spironolactone with third-generation contraceptives alongside topical treatment showed positive results in their condition during 6-12 months [14]. Research shows that topically applied spironolactone delivery through lipid nanoparticles needs further scientific testing of delivery methods.

  1. The endocannabinoid system

Lipid mediators known as endocannabinoids fulfil multiple roles in biological processes because they participate in skin functions such as proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, and immune regulation [15]. The cutaneous endocannabinoid system functions to maintain balance between skin cells; however, any disturbance within it can cause skin conditions [16]. Acne treatment research into the Endocannabinoid System pathways shows potential for cannabidiol because a 2014 in vitro investigation indicated its lipostatic, antiproliferative, and anti-inflammatory actions, which suggest therapeutic benefits for acne vulgaris [17].

  1. The cutaneous microbiome

 A distinctive microbial print shapes the microbial community that exists on the skin surface, which contains bacteria, along with fungi, viruses, and parasites [18]. This structure maintains proper microbial relationships and helps defend our body through its immune defences. The human skin develops under the effects of both internal hormonal and genetic, as well as external cosmetic and dietary factors. The skin condition P. acnes contribute to acne development, whereas Malassezia furfur causes seborrheic dermatitis, and S. aureus and S. pyogenes disrupt skin balance. The presence of S. epidermidis maintains P. acnes inhibition, which subsequently decreases the numbers of S. aureus and S. pyogenes populations [19]. The development of dysbiosis through disruptions results in reduced skin barrier strength and produces inflammatory responses. Acne-related dysbiosis affects sebum production and P. acnes levels, so that inflammation worsens due to TLR-2 activation and cytokine release. Acne treatment requires achieving a balance of the microbiome as one of its main therapeutic objectives [20].

  1. The innate immunity and P. acnes

Immunity in human skin relies on native and adaptive immune system responses [21]. Keratinocytes control immune response activation because they express pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), including TLRs and PARs, that detect microbes, enabling them to release antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) and cytokines to enhance immune responses [22]. The activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome through P. acnes causes monocytes and sebocytes to produce IL-1β, while proteases and ROS regulate this process. P. acnes simultaneously stimulate the secretion of IL-17A and IFN-γ to drive Th17/Th1 responses, which demonstrates the essential role of Th17 cells in acne pathogenesis [23]. The use of nitric oxide nanoparticles (NO-np) brings effective control of P. acnes-induced inflammation through their ability to lower inflammatory cytokine production. The antibacterial function of P. acnes rests on linoleic and sapienic acid FFAs, together with hBD-2, which facilitates AMP production [24]. Heat-sensitive antimicrobial peptides demonstrate properties that make them candidates for acne treatment enhancement of topical retinoids.

Top of Form

  1. Bottom of FormP. acnes and the biofilm

The biofilm structure formed by P. acnes from extracellular polysaccharides helps the bacteria bind to follicles while it alters integrin function to support bacterial multiplication. P. acnes biofilm formation increases both drug resistance and prevents host immune activity, which worsens acne severity [25]. Microcomedone in acne patients form due to propionic acid secretion from P. acnes, while the bacteria affect keratinocyte structure. The application of antibacterial benzoyl peroxide or botanical agents may work as alternatives to defeat P. acnes biofilm formation without causing bacterial resistance [26].

Current treatment strategies

Current treatment strategies for acne focus on addressing the various factors contributing to its pathogenesis, including abnormal keratinization, increased sebum production, microbial colonization, and inflammation [27].

  1. Topical treatments for acne

Treatment

Mechanism of action

Common side effects

Indications

References

Benzoyl peroxide

Release free oxygen radical that kills bacteria; peels out

the inner lining of the hair follicle, causing skin peeling

Dryness, irritation,

potential bleaching

of clothes

Mild to

moderate acne

 

28,29

Retinoids (e.g.,

tretinoin, adapalene)

Normalizes keratinocyte differentiation, comedolytic effect, anti-inflammatory

Dryness,

photosensitivity, irritation, burning

 

Mild to severe acne,

depending on

the formulation

 

30

Antibiotics

(e.g., clindamycin, minocycline)

Antimicrobial;

reduces inflammation

Skin irritation, resistance

development

Mild to moderate

inflammatory acne

 

31

 

Azelaic acid

comedolytic; normalizes keratinization; anti-inflammatory

Skin irritation, burning, redness, and itching

Mild to moderate acne

32,33
  1. Topical combinations for acne treatment.

Treatment

Formulation

Dose, Frequency

Common Side Effects

References

Tretinoin/Clindamycin

Gel

0.025%/1.2% daily

Xerosis, irritation, allergic contact dermatitis, erythema

34

Tretinoin/Benzoyl peroxide

Cream

0.1%/3% once daily

Xerosis, irritation, allergic contact dermatitis, erythema

35

Benzoyl peroxide/Erythromycin

Gel

5%/3% once daily

Xerosis, irritation, allergic contact dermatitis, erythema, bleaching of fabrics

36

 

Clindamycin/Benzoyl peroxide/Adapalene (IDP-126)

Gel

1.2%/3.1%/0.15%

Xerosis, irritation, allergic contact dermatitis, erythema

37

 
  1. Systemic treatments for acne

Treatment

Mechanism of Action

Common Side Effects

Indications

References

Isotretinoin

Reduces sebaceous gland size and sebum production, anti-inflammatory

Dryness, teratogenicity, elevated liver enzymes

Severe scarring acne or acne not responsive to other treatments

38,39

Oral antibiotics (e.g., tetracycline, doxycycline)

Antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory actions

Gastrointestinal upset, photosensitivity

Moderate to severe acne

40

Hormonal therapies (e.g. oral contraceptives)

Regulate hormonal imbalance, reduce sebum production

Mood changes, breast tenderness, thrombosis risk

Hormonally influenced acne, adult women

41,42
  1. Physical and laser therapies for acne

Treatment

Mechanism of Action

Indications

Common Side Effects

References

Photodynamic therapy

Activates photosensitizing agents that kill bacteria and reduce sebum production

Severe acne, acne resistant to other treatments

Redness, swelling, skin sensitivity to sunlight

43

Blue-light therapy

Kills C. acnes bacteria using blue light without damaging the skin

Mild to moderate acne

Temporary redness and dryness

44

 

  1. Dietary supplements for acne

 

Supplement

Mechanism of Action

Common Side Effects

Indications

References

Vitamin D

Modulates immune system, may reduce skin inflammation

 

Rare, potentially increased calcium levels

Various acne types

 

45

 

Omega-3 fatty acids

Anti-inflammatory, modulates sebum production

 

Fishy aftertaste, gastrointestinal upset

Various acne types

46

Limitations of conventional treatment [47-50]

  1. Side Effects: Conventional skin treatments can generate different adverse effects, which include skin irritation, dryness, and photosensitivity triggered by topical agents. Female patients who take isotretinoin need strict monitoring and may develop teratogenicity and require monitoring for potential pregnancy risks. Certain therapies have adverse effects that produce skin discoloration, resulting in both social discrimination and a negative impact on mental well-being.
  2. Antibiotic Resistance: Antibiotic resistance has occurred because of excessive antibiotic use in acne treatment which makes acne-related pathogens less responsive to medical interventions as time passes. The developing antibiotic resistance affects current medical treatments because it reduces their effectiveness while making treatment strategies progressively complex.
  3. Limited Effectiveness: Some traditional medical treatments fail to produce meaningful acne improvement while possibly making the condition worse which drives unhappy patients towards despair. The insufficient treatment results cause additional mental distress which affects patients with this condition.
  4. Emotional and Psychological Impact: The visibility of acne causes substantial psychological stress because individuals develop emotional difficulties most strongly during their teenage years and young adulthood. Acne sufferers frequently develop depression and it hinders their self-esteem and causes anxiety because both unsuccessful therapies and unwanted medication side effects would frustrate them.
  5. Social Stigma: Social stigma directed at people with acne creates embarrassment together with social anxiety as its consequence. Derogatory labels along with discrimination prevent their social interactions and create negative effects on their life quality.

Rationale for Personalized Acne Treatment:

  1. Variability in Acne Presentation: Every person exhibits unique acne symptoms because acne presentations vary across individuals regarding lesion forms and location, as well as their severity. Every case demands a unique treatment plan due to its individual characteristics, according to [51].  
  2. Individual Skin Responses: Treatments experience different outcomes in individual patients because skin sensitivity, along with lifestyle factors and environmental exposures, strongly influence treatment results as well as patient tolerance to therapy. Patients benefit from improved therapeutic results when their care plans account for individual factors [52].
  3. Patient-Centered Care: Incorporating patient preferences and goals into treatment planning fosters shared decision-making, leading to increased adherence and satisfaction. This approach ensures that therapy aligns with the patient's expectations and lifestyle [53].
  4. Advancements in Personalized Medicine: The development of tailored formulations, such as compounded creams, allows for individualized treatment options that can be adjusted to meet specific patient needs, improving both efficacy and tolerability [54].

Nanogels

The term "nanogels" refers to microscopic particles made of cross-linked polymer networks that expand quickly when a solvent penetrates them. The term “nanogel” (NanoGel™) originally referred to two-part bifunctional systems where polyionic and non-ionic polymers combined.

Advantages

Nanogels can be considered a superior drug-delivery system due to its numerous advantages.

  1. These include nanogels having high biocompatibility, biodegradability and recyclable preparation methods [55].
  2. Nanogels can also provide a more precise sustained drug release due to the preparation through the amassing of a polymer system, and such a system also controls the particle size of the preparation [56].
  3. Nanogels can be effortlessly delivered in mucosal and parenteral administration [57].
  4. Both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs can be encapsulated by the nanogel network [58].
  5. Nanogels are inert in the blood stream and the internal aqueous environment, meaning that they do not induce any immunological responses in the body [60].
  6.  They have an improved ability to access areas that are not accessible by hydrogels, upon intravenous administration [61].

Disadvantages

a) The technique to completely remove the solvent and surfactants at the end of the preparation process is expensive.

 b) Surfactant or monomer traces may remain and can impart toxicity [59].

Classification of nanogels

SN

Based on types

Types

Examples

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Structured based nanogel

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
  1. Simple nanogel

Artificial chaperone, cholesterol-bearing pullulan nanogel [62]
  1. Hallow nanogel

Stimuli sensitive/responsive nanogel [63]
  1. Core-shell nanogels

Stimuli sensitive/responsive nanogel [64]
  1. Hairy nanogel

Stimuli-responsive nanogel [65]

 

  1. Multilayer nanogels

Stimuli sensitive/responsive nanogel [66]

 

  1. Functionalized nanogels

Polyethyleneglycol-b-poly (methacrylic acid) [PEG-b-PMA] with PEG terminal aldehyde functionality [67]
  1.  

Response based nanogel [68,69]
  1. Stimuli responsive

 
  1. Non-responsive

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Linkage based nanogel [69,70]
  1. Physically crosslinking nanogel
  1. Hydrogen bonding

 
  1. Electrostatic

Interaction

 
  1. Hydrophobic interaction

 
  1. Chemically cross-linked
  2. nanogel
  1. Disulphide based cross-linking

 
  1. Amide based cross-linking

 
  1. Photo induced cross-linking

 

Drug release mechanisms [71-75]

When an aqueous medium enters the nanogel structure through its porous surface, the nanogel absorbs the liquid and expands. This swelling process facilitates the gradual release of the drug contained within the gel. The speed and extent of drug release depend on how much the nanogel swells in response to the surrounding environment. The mechanism of drug release may be classified in three categories:

  1. Diffusion-controlled
  2. Swelling controlled
  3. Chemically controlled.

1. Diffusion-Controlled Release

  • The drug is released as the aqueous medium penetrates the nanogel network through its porous particle surface.
  • This penetration swells the nanogel, leading to a gradual release of the drug.
  • The rate of drug release depends on the swelling behaviour and the mesh size of the nanogel network.

2. Swelling-Controlled Release

  • When the nanogel absorbs water, it expands, increasing the porosity and allowing drug diffusion.
  • The degree of cross-linking in the nanogel affects swelling and drug release speed.
  • Highly cross-linked nanogels release the drug more slowly, while loosely cross-linked nanogels release the drug faster.

3. Chemically Controlled Release

  • The drug is covalently or non-covalently bound to the nanogel.
  • Chemical stimuli, such as pH, temperature, ionic strength, or enzymes, trigger the breakdown of nanogel bonds, releasing the drug.
  • Examples:
    • pH-Responsive Release: Drug release occurs in acidic environments (e.g., tumour tissues, stomach).
    • Enzyme-Responsive Release: Specific enzymes degrade the nanogel to release the drug.
    • Thermal-Responsive Release: Changes in temperature cause the nanogel to shrink or expand, releasing the drug.

Fig: Drug release mechanism of nanogel

Nanogel Preparation Methods

  1. Emulsion Solvent Diffusion Method

The drug in the aqueous solution is solubilized in an organic solvent. A gelling agent and polymer are dissolved in water to form the drug phase. Later it is added dropwise to the aqueous phase. This mixture is homogenized at 6000 rpm for 30 minutes, resulting in an oil-in-water emulsion with droplet sizes typically under 200 nm, enhancing solubility and stability [76]. To form the nanogel, triethanolamine is introduced to the emulsion and stirred continuously at 8000 rpm for one hour. This step is crucial as triethanolamine acts as a stabilizer, improving the emulsion's thermodynamic stability and enhancing drug delivery efficiency [77].

  1. Evaporation of the Solvent Method

Initially, a drug-polymer mixture is injected into an aqueous phase while continuously stirred at 1000 rpm for two hours [78]. Following this, the resulting nanosponges undergo filtration and are dried in a hot air oven at 40°C for 24 hours. For optimal dispersion, it is recommended to immerse the polymer in water for two hours before gel formation, followed by agitation at 6000 rpm [79].  The pH of the mixture is then adjusted using a pH-modifying agent, and finally, the aqueous dispersion is combined with the optimized nanosponges suspension and permeation enhancers [80].

  1. Nano Precipitated Method

In this method, the organic phase, which contains both the drug and polymer, is introduced into an aqueous surfactant solution. This interaction causes the polymer to precipitate out, forming nanoparticles. Once the excess solvent is removed, the resulting polymeric nanoparticles are collected [81]. Gelling agent and necessary amounts of nanoparticle dispersion are added after moistening the particles. The pH is stabilized by using triethanolamine [82].

  1. Reverse Micellar Method

The initial step involves dissolving the polymer, drug and surfactant in an organic solvent. A cross-linking agent is added, it must be incorporated over an extended period of time during the night [83]. The formed nanoparticles undergo purification, followed by solvent evaporation to yield a solid form. Mixing the dried nanoparticles with an aqueous gelling agent leads to the formation of a nanogel. The application of a neutralizing substance modifies the pH [84].

  1. Modified Diffusion Emulsification Method

The drug-polymer mixture is agitated in an aqueous phase at a high rotational speed of 5000 to 10,000 rpm, facilitating the formation of an organic phase [85]. A syringe fitted with a needle is used to add the organic phase at a rate of 0.5 mL per minute to the aqueous stabilizer solution. After six minutes of agitation at speeds between 10,000 and 25,000 rpm, sonication is applied for five to ten minutes to further stabilize the suspension.

Characterization [86,87]

  1. Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) Analysis

Among the techniques for measuring nanoparticle size distributions in liquids stands dynamic light scattering (DLS) as a valuable method. The analysis of nanogel solution behaviour depends on the microsecond-range light scattering capabilities of this technique. Nanogel size relationship to cross-linkers and polymer chain charge becomes more feasible through DLS-powered determination of effective hydrodynamic radii. The measurement technique monitors the size behaviour of nanogels in multiple solution conditions.

  1. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

The analysis of particle surfaces and sizes utilizes electron microscopy for its effectiveness. Using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) enables users to study nanogel morphology and milli-meter size measurements between 50 and 80 nm can be done. Circular Dichroism (CD) Spectroscopy The optical activity of final products can be measured effectively via Circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy. CD operates best for identifying chiral molecules among nanogels. CD spectroscopy interacts with helical molecular formations that result in macromolecular arrangements detectable by the technique. The structures feature a core with chirality.

  1. Size-Exclusion Chromatography

Materials separate by size through the application of Size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) technique. The main purpose of SEC is to analyse both the molar weight distribution of nanogels and measure molar fractions' volume.

  1. Field-Flow Fractionation (FFF)

Field-flow fractionation (FFF) uses a cross-flow to separate suspensions or solutions that pass through elongated narrow channels. The perpendicular motion of the cross-flow operates independently from the primary flow direction treatment. The technique depends on particle movement throughout the solution while components separate at different speeds resulting from their size and mass differences.

Evaluation [88]

 
  1. Physical Appearance and Homogeneity: Visual inspection assesses the color and uniformity of the nanogel formulation, ensuring there are no visible aggregates or inconsistencies.
  2. Particle Size and Polydispersity Index (PDI): Methods like dynamic light scattering are used to measure particle size and PDI, indicating the distribution and uniformity of particles within the nanogel.
  3. pH Measurement: The pH of the nanogel is crucial for compatibility with biological environments, measured using a digital pH meter.
  4. Drug Content Analysis: The concentration of the drug within the nanogel is evaluated through high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), ensuring adequate dosage.
  5. In-vitro Drug Release Studies: Employing methods like Franz diffusion cells, the rate and extent of drug release from the nanogel are analyzed to predict in vivo performance.
  6. Stability Testing: Testing for stability under accelerated conditions (temperature and humidity) over time ensures that the nanogel retains its properties and efficacy throughout its intended shelf life.

Application:

  1. Enhanced Delivery

Nanogels can incorporate bioactive compounds that have beneficial effects, such as antioxidants, anti-inflammatory agents, or antimicrobial substances. Being nano in size, they will most likely penetrate the skin layers better and help deliver the active ingredients to the focused area of action [89].

  1. Controlled Release

Nanogels can provide the controlled and sustained release of encapsulated active ingredients. This could lead to an extended therapeutic action, reducing application frequency while enhancing treatment efficacy for acne prone skin [90].

  1. Diabetes treatment

An injectable nanogel system has been developed for diabetes management, responding to blood glucose levels by releasing insulin. It consists of oppositely charged particles forming a pH-sensitive gel matrix. Using dextran, the nanogel delivers insulin and enzymes that convert glucose into gluconic acid, lowering pH and triggering insulin release during hyperglycaemia. While promising, further research is needed for clinical application [91].

  1. Local anaesthesia

Nanogels enhance local anaesthetic delivery in dental treatments, improving pain control and prolonging effects. Procaine hydrochloride, loaded into methacrylic acid ethyl acrylate nanogels via hydrophobic and hydrogen bonds, shows increased release at high pH. Deprotonation of the nanogel acid triggers osmotic swelling, increasing porosity and drug release. With minimal pain and extended circulation, nanogels are a promising anaesthetic delivery system [92].

  1. Neurodegenerative disorder

Nanogels offer an effective system for delivering oligodeoxynucleotides (ODN) to the brain, which is essential for treating neurodegenerative diseases. High-molecular-weight molecules struggle to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and are rapidly cleared from circulation. However, when ODN is encapsulated or bound to nanogels, it forms stable polyelectrolyte complexes with particle sizes under 100 nm, enabling successful BBB penetration. Modifying the nanogel surface with insulin or transferrin further enhances transport efficiency [93].

  1. Vaginal drug delivery

Vaginal nanogels loaded with antibacterial drugs are used to treat various vaginal infections and alleviate symptoms like irritation, excessive secretion, and other sexual health issues. However, they are not recommended during menstruation or pregnancy. Some nanogels containing antiretroviral drugs have shown potential in reducing the risk of HIV infection in women. One such example is Tenofovir, a vaginal gel studied for HIV prevention. It was formulated using gelatin nanoparticles through a two-step desolvation method, with HPMC K15M serving as both a gelling and bio adhesive agent. Studies on membrane permeability and bio-adhesion demonstrated strong adhesion properties and enhanced drug absorption [94].

  1. Stability and protection

The nanogel protects the active compound resulting degradation from environmental factors such as light, heat, or oxygen. Such stability is an important aspect for cosmetic formulations; it ensures the maintenance of ingredient efficacy over time [89].

Treatment challenges [95-98]

  1. Mixed Lesion Types

 AFA often presents with both inflammatory and non-inflammatory lesions, which complicates treatment strategies. This mixed presentation requires tailored approaches that differ from traditional acne treatment aimed at younger population.

  1. Chronic Nature of the Condition

The chronic and ongoing nature of AFA means that patients can necessitate long-term management strategies. Improvements in skin condition may take up to three months, which can be frustrating for the patient who seeks timely results.

  1. Psychosocial impact

In most cases, adult female acne causes a significant impact on the patient’s quality of life that is often independent of the severity of their acne. This would require dermatologic treatment coupled with psychological rehabilitation.

  1. Hormonal and lifestyle factors

The disease condition is partly hormonal in causes related to menstrual cycles and stress, and entirely related factors such as diet and sleep patterns. These issues make the treatments even more complex.

  1. Lifestyle compliance

The patient needs to sometimes alter many habits and routines to control the condition. Complying with therapeutic regimens, perhaps including dietary modification, skincare modification, and medications can be challenging.

  1. Selecting the appropriate medications

The next requirement in favour of the problem is dealing with pregnancy plans, breastfeeding and individual sensitivity to skin, which makes it difficult to select the anti-acne drugs. This treatment requires a tailored approach.

Future direction

Future directions in acne treatment focus on several key advancements. These include the development of microencapsulated medications for improved drug delivery and reduced side effects, as well as combination therapies that simplify treatment regimens. Research into targeted treatments, such as engineered antimicrobial peptides to combat antibiotic resistance, is also promising. Furthermore, innovative compounds like cannabinoids and probiotics are being explored for their potential benefits. Lastly, a shift towards personalized medicine aims to tailor treatments to individual patient profiles, enhancing efficacy and adherence

CONCLUSION

Personalized nanogel formulations for acne treatment are evolving as an advanced approach that resolves the problems of conventional therapies. Nanogels demonstrate properties that enable effective acne treatment through the targeted delivery of medications, controlled substance release, and improved skin absorption capability. Detailed patient-tailored care treatments both analyse specific medical attributes and personal needs, leading to better medication adherence and better treatment satisfaction outcomes. Developments in nanotechnology support the integration of patient-specific treatments into medical practice, which promises improved results and a better quality of life for patients suffering from acne. Future studies should work to optimize these formulations and analyse their prolonged effectiveness and safety in different patient groups.

REFERENCES

  1. Chua YC, Nies HW, Kamsani II, Hashim H, Yusoff Y, Chan WH, et al. AI-driven Q-learning for personalized acne genetics: Innovative approaches and potential genetic markers. Egypt Informatics Journal. (June)2024;26.
  2. Xu H, Li H. Acne, the skin microbiome, and antibiotic treatment. American Journal of Clinical Dermatology. 2019;20(3):253-263. doi: 10.1007/s40257-018-00417-3
  3. Srivastava S, Saha S, Jakhmola V. Nanogel: types, methods of preparation, limitation, evaluation and application - a systematic review. International Journal of Drug Delivery Technology.2023;12(3):123-135.
  4. Tan J, Alexis A, Baldwin H, Beissert S, Bettoli V, Rosso D, et al. The Personalised Acne Care Pathway Recommendations to guide longitudinal management from the Personalising Acne: Consensus of Experts. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.2021;101–11.
  5. Van de Kerkhof PCM, Kleinpennning MM, de Jong EMGJ, Gerritsen MJ, van Dooren-Greebe RJ, Alkemade HAC. Current and future treatment options for acne. Journal of Dermatological Treatment. 2006;17(3):198-204.
  6. Batista AS, Fonseca AP. Types of acne and associated therapy: A review. American Research Journal of Pharmacy. 2017 https://doi.org/10.21694/2380-5706.16001.
  7. Haider, A, James C. Shaw. Treatment of Acne Vulgaris.JAMA.2004.292(6),726. doi:10.1001/jama.292.6.726.
  8. Dreno, B., Amici, J. M., Demessant-Flavigny, A. L., Wright, C., Taieb, C., Desai, S. R., & Alexis, A.The impact of acne, atopic dermatitis, skin toxicities and scars on quality of life and the importance of a holistic treatment approach. Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dermatology.2021.14, 623–632.
  9. Pelle E, McCarthy J, Seltmann H, Huang X, Mammone T, Zouboulis CC, et al. Identification of histamine receptors and reduction of squalene levels by an antihistamine in sebocytes. J Invest Dermatol. 2008;128(5):1280-5.
  10. Trivedi NR, Cong Z, Nelson AM, Albert AJ, Rosamilia LL, Sivarajah S, et al. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors increase human sebum production. J Invest Dermatol. 2006;126(9):2002-9.
  11. Di Landro A, Cazzaniga S, Parazzini F, Ingordo V, Cusano F, Atzori L, et al. Family history, body mass index, selected dietary factors, menstrual history, and risk of moderate to severe acne in adolescents and young adults. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2012;67(6):1129-35. 11.
  12. Tuten A, Sahmay S, Oncul M, Acikgoz AS, Imamoglu M, Gurleyen HC, et al. Serum AMH levels in the differential diagnosis of hyperandrogenemic conditions. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol [Internet]. 2014; 177:121–5. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejogrb.2014.03.016.
  13. Leclerc-Mercier S, Buisson V, Dreno B. New regulations for oral contraceptive prescription in France in 2013: what is the impact on adult female acne? Eur J Dermatol [Internet]. 2016;26(4):345–9. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1684/ejd.2016.2773.
  14. Saint-Jean, M., Ballanger, F., Nguyen, J. M., Khammari, A., & Dréno, B. (2010). Importance of spironolactone in the treatment of acne in adult women. Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology, 25(12), 1480–1481. doi:10.1111/j.1468-3083.2010.03926. x.
  15. Pucci M, Pirazzi V, Pasquariello N, Maccarrone M. Endocannabinoid signaling and epidermal differentiation. European Journal Dermatology 2011; 21(Suppl. 2): 29-34 doi:10.1684/ejd.2011.1266.
  16. Biro T, Toth BI, Hasko G, Paus R, Pacher P. The endocannabinoid system of the skin in health and disease: novel perspectives and therapeutic opportunities. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2009;30(8):411-20.
  17. Olah A, Toth BI, Borbiro I, Sugawara K, Szollosi AG, Czifra G, et al. Cannabidiol exerts sebostatic and antiinflammatory effects on human sebocytes. J Clin Invest. 2014;124(9):3713-24.
  18. Kong HH, Oh J, Deming C, Conlan S, Grice EA, Beatson MA, et al. Temporal shifts in the skin microbiome associated with disease flares and treatment in children with atopic dermatitis. Genome Res. 2012;22(5):850-9.
  19. Shu M, Wang Y, Yu J, Kuo S, Coda A, Jiang Y, et al. Fermentation of Propionibacterium acnes, a commensal bacterium in the human skin microbiome, as skin probiotics against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. PLoS One. 2013;8(2):e55380.
  20. Nagy I, Pivarcsi A, Koreck A, Szell M, Urban E, Kemeny L. Distinct strains of Propionibacterium acnes induce selective human beta-defensin-2 and interleukin-8 expression in human keratinocytes through toll-like receptors. J Invest Dermatol. 2005;124(5):931-8.
  21. Kupper TS, Fuhlbrigge RC. Immune surveillance in the skin: mechanisms and clinical consequences. Nat Rev Immunol. 2004;4(3):211-222. doi:10.1038/nri1310.
  22. Sanford JA, Gallo RL. Functions of the skin microbiota in health and disease. Seminars in Immunology. 2013;25(5):370-377. doi: 10.1016/j.smim.2013.09.005.
  23. Eady EA, Goodwin CE, Cove JH, Ingham E, Cunliffe WJ. Inflammatory levels of interleukin 1 alpha are present in the majority of open comedones in acne vulgaris. Archives of Dermatology. 1991;127(8):1238-1239. doi:10.1001/archderm.1991.01680.
  24. Qin M, Landriscina A, Rosen JM, Wei G, Kao S, Olcott W, et al. Nitric Oxide-Releasing Nanoparticles Prevent Propionibacterium acnes-Induced Inflammation by Both Clearing the Organism and Inhibiting Microbial Stimulation of the Innate Immune Response. J Invest Dermatol. 2015;135(11):2723-2731.
  25. Burkhart CG, Burkhart CN. Expanding the microcomedone theory and acne therapeutics: Propionibacterium acnes biofilm produces biological glue that holds corneocytes together to form plug. Journal of the American Academy Dermatology. 2007;57(4):722-724.
  26. Fisk WA, Lev-Tov HA, Sivamani RK. Botanical and phytochemical therapy of acne: a systematic review. Phytotherapy Research. 2014;28(8):1137-1152.
  27. Kim HJ, Kim YH. Exploring acne treatments: From pathophysiological mechanisms to emerging therapies. Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25(10):5302. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms25105302
  28. Sagransky M, Yentzer BA, Feldman, SR. Benzoyl peroxide: A review of its current use in the treatment of acne vulgaris. Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy. 2009;10(15):2555–62.
  29. Mohd nor NH, Aziz Z. A systematic review of benzoyl peroxide for acne vulgaris. J. Dermatol. Treat. 2013;24(5):377–386.
  30. Baldwin H, Webster G, Stein Gold L, Callender V, Cook-Bolden FE, Guenin E. 50 Years of Topical Retinoids for Acne: Evolution of Treatment. Am. J. Clin. Dermatol. 2021;22(3):315–327.
  31. Paik J. Topical Minocycline Foam 4%: A Review in Acne Vulgaris. Am. J. Clin. Dermatol. 2020;21(3):449–456.
  32. Tomic I, Miocic S, Pepic I, Šimic D, Filipovic-Grcic, J. Efficacy and safety of azelaic acid nanocrystal-loaded in situ hydrogel in the treatment of acne vulgaris. Pharmaceutics. 2021;13(4) :567.
  33. Webster G. Combination azelaic acid therapy for acne vulgaris. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 2000;43(2): S47–50.
  34. Motamedi M, Chehade A, Sanghera R, Grewal P. A Clinician’s Guide to Topical Retinoids. J. Cutan. Med. Surg. 2022;26(1):71–78.
  35. Kontzias C, Zaino M, Feldman SR. Tretinoin 0.1% and Benzoyl Peroxide 3% Cream for the Treatment of Facial Acne Vulgaris. Ann. Pharmacother. 2023;57(9):1088–1093.
  36. Leyden JJ, Hickman JG, Jarratt MT, Stewart DM, Levy SF. The efficacy and safety of a combination benzoyl peroxide/clindamycin topical gel compared with benzoyl peroxide alone and a benzoyl peroxide/erythromycin combination product. J. Cutan. Med. Surg. 2001;5(1):37–42.
  37. Stein Gold, L.; Lain, E.; Del Rosso, J.Q.; Gold, M.; Draelos, Z.D.; Eichenfield, L.F.; Sadick, N.; Werschler, W.P.; Gooderham, M.J.; Lupo, M. Clindamycin phosphate 1.2%/adapalene 0.15%/benzoyl peroxide 3.1% gel for moderate-to-severe acne: Efficacy and safety results from two randomized phase 3 trials. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 2023, 89, 927–935.
  38. Bagatin, E.; Costa, C.S. The use of isotretinoin for acne–an update on optimal dosing, surveillance, and adverse effects. Expert. Rev. Clin. Pharmacol. 2020, 13, 885–897.
  39. Fallah, H.; Rademaker, M. Isotretinoin in the management of acne vulgaris: Practical prescribing. Int. J. Dermatol. 2021, 60, 451–460.
  40. Zhanel, G.; Critchley, I.; Lin, L.-Y.; Alvandi, N. Microbiological profile of sarecycline, a novel targeted spectrum tetracycline for the treatment of acne vulgaris. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2019, 63, 10–1128.
  41. Elsaie, M.L. Hormonal treatment of acne vulgaris: An update. Clin. Cosmet. Investig. Dermatol. 2016, 9, 241–248.
  42. Zimmerman, Y.; Eijkemans, M.; Coelingh Bennink, H.; Blankenstein, M.; Fauser, B. The effect of combined oral contraception on testosterone levels in healthy women: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum. Reprod. Update 2014, 20, 76–105.
  43. Liu Y, Sun D-D, Chang S-Y, Ma L-L, Jiang G. Study of different pre-treatments in the comparison of the efficacy of photodynamic therapy for moderate to severe acne vulgaris. Photodiagnosis Photodynamic therapy.2024;49(104298):104298.
  44. Papageorgiou, P.; Katsambas, A.; Chu, A. Phototherapy with blue (415 nm) and red (660 nm) light in the treatment of acne vulgaris. Br. J. Dermatol. 2000, 142, 973–978.
  45. Alhetheli, G.; Elneam, A.I.A.; Alsenaid, A.; Al-Dhubaibi, M. Vitamin D levels in patients with and without acne and its relation to acne severity: A case-control study. Clin. Cosmet. Investig. Dermatol. 2020, 2020, 759–765.
  46. Jung, J.Y.; Kwon, H.H.; Hong, J.S.; Yoon, J.Y.; Park, M.S.; Jang, M.Y.; Suh, D.H. Effect of dietary supplementation with omega-3 fatty acid and gamma-linolenic acid on acne vulgaris: A randomised, double-blind, controlled trial. Acta Derm. Venereol. 2014, 94, 521–525.
  47. Hammer E. The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy. Australian Journal of Medical Herbalism. 2006 Dec 22;18(4):152-3.
  48. Vasam M, Korutla S, Bohara RA. Acne vulgaris: A review of the pathophysiology, treatment, and recent nanotechnology-based advances. Biochem Biophys Rep [Internet]. 2023; 36:101578. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrep.2023.101578.
  49. Abubakar AB, Abduljalal AS. The contemporary issues related to conventional treatment of acne and the way forward. Public Health Risk Assesment Journal.2024;2(1):16–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.61511/phraj.v2i1.2024.944.
  50. Anaba EL, Oaku IR. Adult female acne: A cross-sectional study of diet, family history, body mass index, and premenstrual flare as risk factors and contributors to severity. Int J Womens Dermatol. 2021;7(3):265–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijwd.2020.11.008.
  51. Layton AM, Chb MB, Alexis A, Baldwin H, Bettoli V, Rosso J Del, et al. The Personalized Acne Treatment Tool d Recommendations to facilitate a patient-centered approach to acne management from the Personalizing Acne: Consensus of Experts. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.2023;60–9.
  52. A personalized system of acne treatment is superior in providing rapid and sustained improvement on acne and quality of life. (2009). Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 60(3), AB15. doi: 10.1016/j.jaad.2008.11.091.
  53. Tan J, Alexis A, Baldwin H, Beissert S, Bettoli V, Rosso D, et al. The Personalised Acne Care Pathway Recommendations to guide longitudinal management from the Personalising Acne: Consensus of Experts. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.2021;101–11.
  54. Polonini H, Silva CCV. 50849 tailored formulations for individualized acne care: Advancing personalized approaches in dermatological compounding. J Am Acad Dermatol [Internet]. 2024;91(3): AB321. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2024.07.1277.
  55. Sultana F, Imran-Ul-Haque M, Arafat M, Sharmin S. An overview of nanogel drug delivery system. J. Appl. Pharm Sci.2013; 3(8 Suppl. 1), S95–S105.
  56. Sawada S-i, Sasaki Y, Nomura Y, Akiyoshi K. Cyclodextrin-responsive nanogel as an artificial chaperone for horseradish peroxidase. Colloid Polym. Sci.2011; 289(5–6), 685–691.
  57. Garg T, Singh S, Goyal AK. Stimuli-sensitive hydrogels: an excellent carrier for drug and cell delivery. Crit. Rev. Ther. Drug Carrier Syst.2013;30(5), 369–409.
  58. Garg T, Goyal AK. Biomaterial-based scaffolds–current status and future directions. Exp. Opin. Drug Deliv.2014;11(5), 767–789.
  59. Rossetti H, Albizzati D, Alfano M. Decomposition of formic acid in a water solution employing the photo-fenton reaction. Ind Eng Chem Res 2002; 41: 1436-1444.
  60. G.D. Lewis Phillips, G. Li, D.L. Dugger, LM. Crocker, K.L. Parsons, E. Mai, W.A. Blättler, J.M. Lambert, R.V.J. Chari, R.J.; Lutz, et al. Targeting HER2-positive breast cancer with trastuzumab-DM1, an antibody-cytotoxic drug conjugate, Cancer Res 68 (2008) 9280-9290.
  61. Pan, P. Hu, X. Guo, J. Hao. D. Ni, Y. Xu, Q. Bao, H. Yao, C. Wei Wis et al. Canbused mapietic hyperthermia and immune therapy for primary and metastatie tomor treatments. ACS Nano 14 (2020) 1013-1044
  62. Inomoto N, Osaka N, Suzuki T, Hasegawa U, Ozawa Y, Endo H, et al. 2009. Interaction of nanogel with cyclodextrin or protein: study by dynamic light scattering and small-angle neutron scattering. Polymer. 50:541–546.
  63. Xing Z, Wang C, Yan J, Zhang L, Li L, Zha L. 2011. Dual stimuli responsive hollow nanogels with IPN structure for temperature controlling drug loading and pH triggering drug release. Soft Matter. 7: 7992–7997.
  64. Sun H, Yu J, Gong P, Xu D, Zhang C, Yao S. 2005. Novel core–shell magnetic nanogels synthesized in an emulsion-free aqueous system under UV irradiation for targeted radiopharmaceutical applications. J Magn Magn Mater. 294:273–280.
  65. Shen W, Chang Y, Liu G, Wang H, Cao A, An Z. 2011. Biocompatible, antifouling, and thermosensitive core shell nanogels synthesized by RAFT aqueous dispersion polymerization. Macromolecules. 44:2524–2530.
  66. Wong JE, Mu?ller CB, DI?ez-Pascual AM, Richtering W. 2009. Study of layer-by-layer films on thermoresponsive nanogels using temperature-controlled dual-focus fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. J Phys Chem B. 113:15907–15913.
  67. Nukolova NV, Oberoi HS, Cohen SM, Kabanov AV, Bronich TK. 2011. Folate-decorated nanogels for targeted therapy of ovarian cancer. Biomaterials. 32:5417–5426.
  68. Zha L, Banik B and Alexis F. Stimulus responsive nanogels for drug delivery. Soft Matter 2011; 7(13): 5908–5916.
  69. Qiao ZY, Zhang R, Du FS, et al. Multi-responsive nanogels containing motifs of ortho ester, oligo (ethylene glycol) and disulfide linkage as carriers of hydrophobic anti-cancer drugs. J Contr Release 2011; 152(1): 57–66.
  70. Zhang X, Malhotra S, Molina M, et al. Micro- and nanogels with labile crosslinks-from synthesis to biomedical applications. Chem Soc Rev 2015; 44: 1948–1973.
  71. Zhang H, Zhai Y, Wang J, Zhai G. New progress and prospects: the application of nanogel in drug delivery. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 60, 560–568 (2016).
  72. Khalid Q, Ahmad M, Usman Minhas M. Hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin hybrid nanogels as nano-drug delivery carriers to enhance the solubility of dexibuprofen: characterization, in vitro release, and acute oral toxicity studies. Adv. Polym. Technol. 37(6), 2171–2185 (2018).
  73. Zhu K, Ye T, Liu J et al. Nanogels fabricated by lysozyme and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose for 5-fluorouracil controlled release. Int. J. Pharm. 441(1–2), 721–727 (2013).
  74. Neamtu I, Rusu AG, Diaconu A, Nita LE, Chiriac AP. Basic concepts and recent advances in nanogels as carriers for medical applications. Drug Deliv. 24(1), 539–557 (2017).
  75. Suhail M, Rosenholm JM, Minhas MU, Badshah SF, Naeem A, Khan KU, Fahad M. Nanogels as drug-delivery systems: a comprehensive overview. Therapeutic delivery. 2019
  76. Tanuku S, Velisila D, Thatraju D, Vadaga AK. Nanoemulsion formulation strategies for enhanced drug delivery. J Pharma Insights Res. 2024. doi: 10.69613/3f8m9151
  77. Gorle A, Ahire K, Shende R. Design, development and characterization of nanoemulsion developed by high pressure homogenization (HPH) method containing antifungal drug. J Drug Deliv Ther. 2022;12(2):24-32. doi: 10.22270/jddt. v12i2.5245.
  78. Kumar NPD, Vineetha K, Kamath KK, Shabaraya AR. Nanosponges: A Versatile Novel Drug Delivery System. Int J Pharm Sci Rev Res. 2022;76(1):151-156. doi: 10.47583/ijpsrr. 2022.v76i01.026.
  79. Pawar AY, Naik AK, Jadhav KR. Nanosponges: A Novel Drug Delivery System. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutics. 2016;10(4 Suppl):S456.
  80. Salunkhe A, More S, Dhole S. A Narrative Review on Drug Loaded Nanosponges as a Carrier for Drug Delivery. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Quality Assurance. 2023;14(1):244-249
  81. Johnson BK, Saad W, Prud'homme RK. Nanoprecipitation of pharmaceuticals using mixing and block copolymer stabilization. In: Svenson S, ed. Polymeric Drug Delivery II. ACS Symposium Series. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society; 2006: Ch 18. doi: 10.1021/bk-2006-0924.ch018.
  82. Steinhilber, D., Witting, M., Zhang, X., Staegemann, M., Paulus, F., Friess, W., Küchler, S., & Haag, R. (2013). Surfactant free preparation of biodegradable dendritic polyglycerol nanogels by inverse nanoprecipitation for encapsulation and release of pharmaceutical biomacromolecules. Journal of Controlled Release: Official Journal of the Controlled Release Society, 169(3), 289–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconrel.2012.12.008.
  83. Karine Cappuccio de Castro, Josiel Martins Costa & Maria Gabriela Nogueira Campos (2020): Drug-loaded polymeric nanoparticles: a review, International Journal of Polymeric Materials and Polymeric Biomaterials, DOI: 10.1080/00914037.2020.1798436.
  84. Oh JK, Lee DI, Park JM. Biopolymer-based microgels/ nanogels for drug delivery applications. Progress in polymer science. 2009; 34(12): 1261-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. progpolymsci.2009.08.001.
  85. Shaikh MS, Kale MA. Formulation and molecular docking simulation study of luliconazole nanosuspension-based nanogel for transdermal drug delivery using modified polymer. Mater Today Chem. 2020; 18:100364. doi: 10.1016/j.mtchem.2020.100364.
  86. S F, Umashankar MS, Narayanasamy D. A comprehensive review of nanogel-based drug delivery systems. Cureus [Internet]. 2024;16(9):e68633. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.7759/cureus.68633
  87. Hasegawa U, Nomura SM, Kaul SC, Hirano T, Akiyoshi K: Nanogel-quantum dot hybrid nanoparticles for live cell imaging. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2005, 331:917-21. 10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.03.228
  88. Aziz, Z. S., Jazaa, S. H., Dageem, H. N., Banoon, S. R., Balboul, B. A., & Abdelzaher, M. A. (2024). Bacterial biodegradation of oil-contaminated soil for pollutant abatement contributing to achieve sustainable development goals: A comprehensive review. Results in Engineering, 102083.
  89. Jain S, Ancheria RK, Shrivastava S, Soni SL, Sharma M. An overview of nanogel – novel drug delivery system. Asian J. Pharm. Res. Dev. 7(2), 47–55 (2019).
  90. Tan JP, Tan MB, Tam MK. Application of nanogel systems in the administration of local anesthetics. Local Reg. Anesth. 3, 93 (2010).
  91. Wu Z, Zhang X, Guo H, Li C, Yu D. An injectable and glucose-sensitive nanogel for controlled insulin release. J. Mater. Chem. 22(42), 22788–22796 (2012).
  92. Manna S, Lakshmi U, Racharla M, Sinha P, Kanthal L, Kumar S. Bioadhesive HPMC gel containing gelatin nanoparticles for intravaginal delivery of tenofovir. J. Appl. Pharm. Sci. 6, 22–29 (2016).
  93. Sultana F, Imran-Ul-Haque M, Arafat M, Sharmin S. An overview of nanogel drug delivery system. J. Appl. Pharm Sci. 3(8 Suppl. 1), S95–S105 (2013).
  94. Albuquerque RGR, Rocha MAD, Bagatin E, et al. Could adult female acne be associated with modern life? Arch Dermatol Res. 2014;306(8):683–688.
  95. Lynn DD, Umari T, Dunnick CA, et al. The epidemiology of acne vulgaris in late adolescence. Adolesc Health Med Ther.2016;7:13–25.
  96. Vos T, Flaxman AD, Naghavi M, et al. Years lived with disability (YLDs) for 1160 sequelae of 289 diseases and injuries 1990–2010: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2010.Lancet. 2012;380(9859):2163–2196.
  97. Bagatin E, da Rocha MAD, Freitas THP, Costa CS. Treatment challenges in adult female acne and future directions. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2021;14(5):687-701. doi: 10.1080/17512433.2021.1917376.

Reference

  1. Chua YC, Nies HW, Kamsani II, Hashim H, Yusoff Y, Chan WH, et al. AI-driven Q-learning for personalized acne genetics: Innovative approaches and potential genetic markers. Egypt Informatics Journal. (June)2024;26.
  2. Xu H, Li H. Acne, the skin microbiome, and antibiotic treatment. American Journal of Clinical Dermatology. 2019;20(3):253-263. doi: 10.1007/s40257-018-00417-3
  3. Srivastava S, Saha S, Jakhmola V. Nanogel: types, methods of preparation, limitation, evaluation and application - a systematic review. International Journal of Drug Delivery Technology.2023;12(3):123-135.
  4. Tan J, Alexis A, Baldwin H, Beissert S, Bettoli V, Rosso D, et al. The Personalised Acne Care Pathway Recommendations to guide longitudinal management from the Personalising Acne: Consensus of Experts. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.2021;101–11.
  5. Van de Kerkhof PCM, Kleinpennning MM, de Jong EMGJ, Gerritsen MJ, van Dooren-Greebe RJ, Alkemade HAC. Current and future treatment options for acne. Journal of Dermatological Treatment. 2006;17(3):198-204.
  6. Batista AS, Fonseca AP. Types of acne and associated therapy: A review. American Research Journal of Pharmacy. 2017 https://doi.org/10.21694/2380-5706.16001.
  7. Haider, A, James C. Shaw. Treatment of Acne Vulgaris.JAMA.2004.292(6),726. doi:10.1001/jama.292.6.726.
  8. Dreno, B., Amici, J. M., Demessant-Flavigny, A. L., Wright, C., Taieb, C., Desai, S. R., & Alexis, A.The impact of acne, atopic dermatitis, skin toxicities and scars on quality of life and the importance of a holistic treatment approach. Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dermatology.2021.14, 623–632.
  9. Pelle E, McCarthy J, Seltmann H, Huang X, Mammone T, Zouboulis CC, et al. Identification of histamine receptors and reduction of squalene levels by an antihistamine in sebocytes. J Invest Dermatol. 2008;128(5):1280-5.
  10. Trivedi NR, Cong Z, Nelson AM, Albert AJ, Rosamilia LL, Sivarajah S, et al. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors increase human sebum production. J Invest Dermatol. 2006;126(9):2002-9.
  11. Di Landro A, Cazzaniga S, Parazzini F, Ingordo V, Cusano F, Atzori L, et al. Family history, body mass index, selected dietary factors, menstrual history, and risk of moderate to severe acne in adolescents and young adults. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2012;67(6):1129-35. 11.
  12. Tuten A, Sahmay S, Oncul M, Acikgoz AS, Imamoglu M, Gurleyen HC, et al. Serum AMH levels in the differential diagnosis of hyperandrogenemic conditions. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol [Internet]. 2014; 177:121–5. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejogrb.2014.03.016.
  13. Leclerc-Mercier S, Buisson V, Dreno B. New regulations for oral contraceptive prescription in France in 2013: what is the impact on adult female acne? Eur J Dermatol [Internet]. 2016;26(4):345–9. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1684/ejd.2016.2773.
  14. Saint-Jean, M., Ballanger, F., Nguyen, J. M., Khammari, A., & Dréno, B. (2010). Importance of spironolactone in the treatment of acne in adult women. Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology, 25(12), 1480–1481. doi:10.1111/j.1468-3083.2010.03926. x.
  15. Pucci M, Pirazzi V, Pasquariello N, Maccarrone M. Endocannabinoid signaling and epidermal differentiation. European Journal Dermatology 2011; 21(Suppl. 2): 29-34 doi:10.1684/ejd.2011.1266.
  16. Biro T, Toth BI, Hasko G, Paus R, Pacher P. The endocannabinoid system of the skin in health and disease: novel perspectives and therapeutic opportunities. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2009;30(8):411-20.
  17. Olah A, Toth BI, Borbiro I, Sugawara K, Szollosi AG, Czifra G, et al. Cannabidiol exerts sebostatic and antiinflammatory effects on human sebocytes. J Clin Invest. 2014;124(9):3713-24.
  18. Kong HH, Oh J, Deming C, Conlan S, Grice EA, Beatson MA, et al. Temporal shifts in the skin microbiome associated with disease flares and treatment in children with atopic dermatitis. Genome Res. 2012;22(5):850-9.
  19. Shu M, Wang Y, Yu J, Kuo S, Coda A, Jiang Y, et al. Fermentation of Propionibacterium acnes, a commensal bacterium in the human skin microbiome, as skin probiotics against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. PLoS One. 2013;8(2):e55380.
  20. Nagy I, Pivarcsi A, Koreck A, Szell M, Urban E, Kemeny L. Distinct strains of Propionibacterium acnes induce selective human beta-defensin-2 and interleukin-8 expression in human keratinocytes through toll-like receptors. J Invest Dermatol. 2005;124(5):931-8.
  21. Kupper TS, Fuhlbrigge RC. Immune surveillance in the skin: mechanisms and clinical consequences. Nat Rev Immunol. 2004;4(3):211-222. doi:10.1038/nri1310.
  22. Sanford JA, Gallo RL. Functions of the skin microbiota in health and disease. Seminars in Immunology. 2013;25(5):370-377. doi: 10.1016/j.smim.2013.09.005.
  23. Eady EA, Goodwin CE, Cove JH, Ingham E, Cunliffe WJ. Inflammatory levels of interleukin 1 alpha are present in the majority of open comedones in acne vulgaris. Archives of Dermatology. 1991;127(8):1238-1239. doi:10.1001/archderm.1991.01680.
  24. Qin M, Landriscina A, Rosen JM, Wei G, Kao S, Olcott W, et al. Nitric Oxide-Releasing Nanoparticles Prevent Propionibacterium acnes-Induced Inflammation by Both Clearing the Organism and Inhibiting Microbial Stimulation of the Innate Immune Response. J Invest Dermatol. 2015;135(11):2723-2731.
  25. Burkhart CG, Burkhart CN. Expanding the microcomedone theory and acne therapeutics: Propionibacterium acnes biofilm produces biological glue that holds corneocytes together to form plug. Journal of the American Academy Dermatology. 2007;57(4):722-724.
  26. Fisk WA, Lev-Tov HA, Sivamani RK. Botanical and phytochemical therapy of acne: a systematic review. Phytotherapy Research. 2014;28(8):1137-1152.
  27. Kim HJ, Kim YH. Exploring acne treatments: From pathophysiological mechanisms to emerging therapies. Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25(10):5302. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms25105302
  28. Sagransky M, Yentzer BA, Feldman, SR. Benzoyl peroxide: A review of its current use in the treatment of acne vulgaris. Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy. 2009;10(15):2555–62.
  29. Mohd nor NH, Aziz Z. A systematic review of benzoyl peroxide for acne vulgaris. J. Dermatol. Treat. 2013;24(5):377–386.
  30. Baldwin H, Webster G, Stein Gold L, Callender V, Cook-Bolden FE, Guenin E. 50 Years of Topical Retinoids for Acne: Evolution of Treatment. Am. J. Clin. Dermatol. 2021;22(3):315–327.
  31. Paik J. Topical Minocycline Foam 4%: A Review in Acne Vulgaris. Am. J. Clin. Dermatol. 2020;21(3):449–456.
  32. Tomic I, Miocic S, Pepic I, Šimic D, Filipovic-Grcic, J. Efficacy and safety of azelaic acid nanocrystal-loaded in situ hydrogel in the treatment of acne vulgaris. Pharmaceutics. 2021;13(4) :567.
  33. Webster G. Combination azelaic acid therapy for acne vulgaris. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 2000;43(2): S47–50.
  34. Motamedi M, Chehade A, Sanghera R, Grewal P. A Clinician’s Guide to Topical Retinoids. J. Cutan. Med. Surg. 2022;26(1):71–78.
  35. Kontzias C, Zaino M, Feldman SR. Tretinoin 0.1% and Benzoyl Peroxide 3% Cream for the Treatment of Facial Acne Vulgaris. Ann. Pharmacother. 2023;57(9):1088–1093.
  36. Leyden JJ, Hickman JG, Jarratt MT, Stewart DM, Levy SF. The efficacy and safety of a combination benzoyl peroxide/clindamycin topical gel compared with benzoyl peroxide alone and a benzoyl peroxide/erythromycin combination product. J. Cutan. Med. Surg. 2001;5(1):37–42.
  37. Stein Gold, L.; Lain, E.; Del Rosso, J.Q.; Gold, M.; Draelos, Z.D.; Eichenfield, L.F.; Sadick, N.; Werschler, W.P.; Gooderham, M.J.; Lupo, M. Clindamycin phosphate 1.2%/adapalene 0.15%/benzoyl peroxide 3.1% gel for moderate-to-severe acne: Efficacy and safety results from two randomized phase 3 trials. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 2023, 89, 927–935.
  38. Bagatin, E.; Costa, C.S. The use of isotretinoin for acne–an update on optimal dosing, surveillance, and adverse effects. Expert. Rev. Clin. Pharmacol. 2020, 13, 885–897.
  39. Fallah, H.; Rademaker, M. Isotretinoin in the management of acne vulgaris: Practical prescribing. Int. J. Dermatol. 2021, 60, 451–460.
  40. Zhanel, G.; Critchley, I.; Lin, L.-Y.; Alvandi, N. Microbiological profile of sarecycline, a novel targeted spectrum tetracycline for the treatment of acne vulgaris. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2019, 63, 10–1128.
  41. Elsaie, M.L. Hormonal treatment of acne vulgaris: An update. Clin. Cosmet. Investig. Dermatol. 2016, 9, 241–248.
  42. Zimmerman, Y.; Eijkemans, M.; Coelingh Bennink, H.; Blankenstein, M.; Fauser, B. The effect of combined oral contraception on testosterone levels in healthy women: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum. Reprod. Update 2014, 20, 76–105.
  43. Liu Y, Sun D-D, Chang S-Y, Ma L-L, Jiang G. Study of different pre-treatments in the comparison of the efficacy of photodynamic therapy for moderate to severe acne vulgaris. Photodiagnosis Photodynamic therapy.2024;49(104298):104298.
  44. Papageorgiou, P.; Katsambas, A.; Chu, A. Phototherapy with blue (415 nm) and red (660 nm) light in the treatment of acne vulgaris. Br. J. Dermatol. 2000, 142, 973–978.
  45. Alhetheli, G.; Elneam, A.I.A.; Alsenaid, A.; Al-Dhubaibi, M. Vitamin D levels in patients with and without acne and its relation to acne severity: A case-control study. Clin. Cosmet. Investig. Dermatol. 2020, 2020, 759–765.
  46. Jung, J.Y.; Kwon, H.H.; Hong, J.S.; Yoon, J.Y.; Park, M.S.; Jang, M.Y.; Suh, D.H. Effect of dietary supplementation with omega-3 fatty acid and gamma-linolenic acid on acne vulgaris: A randomised, double-blind, controlled trial. Acta Derm. Venereol. 2014, 94, 521–525.
  47. Hammer E. The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy. Australian Journal of Medical Herbalism. 2006 Dec 22;18(4):152-3.
  48. Vasam M, Korutla S, Bohara RA. Acne vulgaris: A review of the pathophysiology, treatment, and recent nanotechnology-based advances. Biochem Biophys Rep [Internet]. 2023; 36:101578. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrep.2023.101578.
  49. Abubakar AB, Abduljalal AS. The contemporary issues related to conventional treatment of acne and the way forward. Public Health Risk Assesment Journal.2024;2(1):16–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.61511/phraj.v2i1.2024.944.
  50. Anaba EL, Oaku IR. Adult female acne: A cross-sectional study of diet, family history, body mass index, and premenstrual flare as risk factors and contributors to severity. Int J Womens Dermatol. 2021;7(3):265–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijwd.2020.11.008.
  51. Layton AM, Chb MB, Alexis A, Baldwin H, Bettoli V, Rosso J Del, et al. The Personalized Acne Treatment Tool d Recommendations to facilitate a patient-centered approach to acne management from the Personalizing Acne: Consensus of Experts. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.2023;60–9.
  52. A personalized system of acne treatment is superior in providing rapid and sustained improvement on acne and quality of life. (2009). Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 60(3), AB15. doi: 10.1016/j.jaad.2008.11.091.
  53. Tan J, Alexis A, Baldwin H, Beissert S, Bettoli V, Rosso D, et al. The Personalised Acne Care Pathway Recommendations to guide longitudinal management from the Personalising Acne: Consensus of Experts. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.2021;101–11.
  54. Polonini H, Silva CCV. 50849 tailored formulations for individualized acne care: Advancing personalized approaches in dermatological compounding. J Am Acad Dermatol [Internet]. 2024;91(3): AB321. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2024.07.1277.
  55. Sultana F, Imran-Ul-Haque M, Arafat M, Sharmin S. An overview of nanogel drug delivery system. J. Appl. Pharm Sci.2013; 3(8 Suppl. 1), S95–S105.
  56. Sawada S-i, Sasaki Y, Nomura Y, Akiyoshi K. Cyclodextrin-responsive nanogel as an artificial chaperone for horseradish peroxidase. Colloid Polym. Sci.2011; 289(5–6), 685–691.
  57. Garg T, Singh S, Goyal AK. Stimuli-sensitive hydrogels: an excellent carrier for drug and cell delivery. Crit. Rev. Ther. Drug Carrier Syst.2013;30(5), 369–409.
  58. Garg T, Goyal AK. Biomaterial-based scaffolds–current status and future directions. Exp. Opin. Drug Deliv.2014;11(5), 767–789.
  59. Rossetti H, Albizzati D, Alfano M. Decomposition of formic acid in a water solution employing the photo-fenton reaction. Ind Eng Chem Res 2002; 41: 1436-1444.
  60. G.D. Lewis Phillips, G. Li, D.L. Dugger, LM. Crocker, K.L. Parsons, E. Mai, W.A. Blättler, J.M. Lambert, R.V.J. Chari, R.J.; Lutz, et al. Targeting HER2-positive breast cancer with trastuzumab-DM1, an antibody-cytotoxic drug conjugate, Cancer Res 68 (2008) 9280-9290.
  61. Pan, P. Hu, X. Guo, J. Hao. D. Ni, Y. Xu, Q. Bao, H. Yao, C. Wei Wis et al. Canbused mapietic hyperthermia and immune therapy for primary and metastatie tomor treatments. ACS Nano 14 (2020) 1013-1044
  62. Inomoto N, Osaka N, Suzuki T, Hasegawa U, Ozawa Y, Endo H, et al. 2009. Interaction of nanogel with cyclodextrin or protein: study by dynamic light scattering and small-angle neutron scattering. Polymer. 50:541–546.
  63. Xing Z, Wang C, Yan J, Zhang L, Li L, Zha L. 2011. Dual stimuli responsive hollow nanogels with IPN structure for temperature controlling drug loading and pH triggering drug release. Soft Matter. 7: 7992–7997.
  64. Sun H, Yu J, Gong P, Xu D, Zhang C, Yao S. 2005. Novel core–shell magnetic nanogels synthesized in an emulsion-free aqueous system under UV irradiation for targeted radiopharmaceutical applications. J Magn Magn Mater. 294:273–280.
  65. Shen W, Chang Y, Liu G, Wang H, Cao A, An Z. 2011. Biocompatible, antifouling, and thermosensitive core shell nanogels synthesized by RAFT aqueous dispersion polymerization. Macromolecules. 44:2524–2530.
  66. Wong JE, Mu?ller CB, DI?ez-Pascual AM, Richtering W. 2009. Study of layer-by-layer films on thermoresponsive nanogels using temperature-controlled dual-focus fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. J Phys Chem B. 113:15907–15913.
  67. Nukolova NV, Oberoi HS, Cohen SM, Kabanov AV, Bronich TK. 2011. Folate-decorated nanogels for targeted therapy of ovarian cancer. Biomaterials. 32:5417–5426.
  68. Zha L, Banik B and Alexis F. Stimulus responsive nanogels for drug delivery. Soft Matter 2011; 7(13): 5908–5916.
  69. Qiao ZY, Zhang R, Du FS, et al. Multi-responsive nanogels containing motifs of ortho ester, oligo (ethylene glycol) and disulfide linkage as carriers of hydrophobic anti-cancer drugs. J Contr Release 2011; 152(1): 57–66.
  70. Zhang X, Malhotra S, Molina M, et al. Micro- and nanogels with labile crosslinks-from synthesis to biomedical applications. Chem Soc Rev 2015; 44: 1948–1973.
  71. Zhang H, Zhai Y, Wang J, Zhai G. New progress and prospects: the application of nanogel in drug delivery. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 60, 560–568 (2016).
  72. Khalid Q, Ahmad M, Usman Minhas M. Hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin hybrid nanogels as nano-drug delivery carriers to enhance the solubility of dexibuprofen: characterization, in vitro release, and acute oral toxicity studies. Adv. Polym. Technol. 37(6), 2171–2185 (2018).
  73. Zhu K, Ye T, Liu J et al. Nanogels fabricated by lysozyme and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose for 5-fluorouracil controlled release. Int. J. Pharm. 441(1–2), 721–727 (2013).
  74. Neamtu I, Rusu AG, Diaconu A, Nita LE, Chiriac AP. Basic concepts and recent advances in nanogels as carriers for medical applications. Drug Deliv. 24(1), 539–557 (2017).
  75. Suhail M, Rosenholm JM, Minhas MU, Badshah SF, Naeem A, Khan KU, Fahad M. Nanogels as drug-delivery systems: a comprehensive overview. Therapeutic delivery. 2019
  76. Tanuku S, Velisila D, Thatraju D, Vadaga AK. Nanoemulsion formulation strategies for enhanced drug delivery. J Pharma Insights Res. 2024. doi: 10.69613/3f8m9151
  77. Gorle A, Ahire K, Shende R. Design, development and characterization of nanoemulsion developed by high pressure homogenization (HPH) method containing antifungal drug. J Drug Deliv Ther. 2022;12(2):24-32. doi: 10.22270/jddt. v12i2.5245.
  78. Kumar NPD, Vineetha K, Kamath KK, Shabaraya AR. Nanosponges: A Versatile Novel Drug Delivery System. Int J Pharm Sci Rev Res. 2022;76(1):151-156. doi: 10.47583/ijpsrr. 2022.v76i01.026.
  79. Pawar AY, Naik AK, Jadhav KR. Nanosponges: A Novel Drug Delivery System. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutics. 2016;10(4 Suppl):S456.
  80. Salunkhe A, More S, Dhole S. A Narrative Review on Drug Loaded Nanosponges as a Carrier for Drug Delivery. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Quality Assurance. 2023;14(1):244-249
  81. Johnson BK, Saad W, Prud'homme RK. Nanoprecipitation of pharmaceuticals using mixing and block copolymer stabilization. In: Svenson S, ed. Polymeric Drug Delivery II. ACS Symposium Series. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society; 2006: Ch 18. doi: 10.1021/bk-2006-0924.ch018.
  82. Steinhilber, D., Witting, M., Zhang, X., Staegemann, M., Paulus, F., Friess, W., Küchler, S., & Haag, R. (2013). Surfactant free preparation of biodegradable dendritic polyglycerol nanogels by inverse nanoprecipitation for encapsulation and release of pharmaceutical biomacromolecules. Journal of Controlled Release: Official Journal of the Controlled Release Society, 169(3), 289–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconrel.2012.12.008.
  83. Karine Cappuccio de Castro, Josiel Martins Costa & Maria Gabriela Nogueira Campos (2020): Drug-loaded polymeric nanoparticles: a review, International Journal of Polymeric Materials and Polymeric Biomaterials, DOI: 10.1080/00914037.2020.1798436.
  84. Oh JK, Lee DI, Park JM. Biopolymer-based microgels/ nanogels for drug delivery applications. Progress in polymer science. 2009; 34(12): 1261-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. progpolymsci.2009.08.001.
  85. Shaikh MS, Kale MA. Formulation and molecular docking simulation study of luliconazole nanosuspension-based nanogel for transdermal drug delivery using modified polymer. Mater Today Chem. 2020; 18:100364. doi: 10.1016/j.mtchem.2020.100364.
  86. S F, Umashankar MS, Narayanasamy D. A comprehensive review of nanogel-based drug delivery systems. Cureus [Internet]. 2024;16(9):e68633. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.7759/cureus.68633
  87. Hasegawa U, Nomura SM, Kaul SC, Hirano T, Akiyoshi K: Nanogel-quantum dot hybrid nanoparticles for live cell imaging. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2005, 331:917-21. 10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.03.228
  88. Aziz, Z. S., Jazaa, S. H., Dageem, H. N., Banoon, S. R., Balboul, B. A., & Abdelzaher, M. A. (2024). Bacterial biodegradation of oil-contaminated soil for pollutant abatement contributing to achieve sustainable development goals: A comprehensive review. Results in Engineering, 102083.
  89. Jain S, Ancheria RK, Shrivastava S, Soni SL, Sharma M. An overview of nanogel – novel drug delivery system. Asian J. Pharm. Res. Dev. 7(2), 47–55 (2019).
  90. Tan JP, Tan MB, Tam MK. Application of nanogel systems in the administration of local anesthetics. Local Reg. Anesth. 3, 93 (2010).
  91. Wu Z, Zhang X, Guo H, Li C, Yu D. An injectable and glucose-sensitive nanogel for controlled insulin release. J. Mater. Chem. 22(42), 22788–22796 (2012).
  92. Manna S, Lakshmi U, Racharla M, Sinha P, Kanthal L, Kumar S. Bioadhesive HPMC gel containing gelatin nanoparticles for intravaginal delivery of tenofovir. J. Appl. Pharm. Sci. 6, 22–29 (2016).
  93. Sultana F, Imran-Ul-Haque M, Arafat M, Sharmin S. An overview of nanogel drug delivery system. J. Appl. Pharm Sci. 3(8 Suppl. 1), S95–S105 (2013).
  94. Albuquerque RGR, Rocha MAD, Bagatin E, et al. Could adult female acne be associated with modern life? Arch Dermatol Res. 2014;306(8):683–688.
  95. Lynn DD, Umari T, Dunnick CA, et al. The epidemiology of acne vulgaris in late adolescence. Adolesc Health Med Ther.2016;7:13–25.
  96. Vos T, Flaxman AD, Naghavi M, et al. Years lived with disability (YLDs) for 1160 sequelae of 289 diseases and injuries 1990–2010: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2010.Lancet. 2012;380(9859):2163–2196.
  97. Bagatin E, da Rocha MAD, Freitas THP, Costa CS. Treatment challenges in adult female acne and future directions. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2021;14(5):687-701. doi: 10.1080/17512433.2021.1917376.

Photo
Sara Rai
Corresponding author

Department of Pharmaceutics , Karnataka College of Pharmacy

Photo
Beny Baby
Co-author

Department of Pharmaceutics, Karnataka College of Pharmacy

Photo
S. Rajarajan
Co-author

Department of Industrial Pharmacy, Karnataka College of Pharmacy

Photo
Survi Barnawal
Co-author

Department of Pharmaceutics, Karnataka College of Pharmacy

Sara Rai*, Beny Baby, S. Rajarajan, Survi Barnawal, Enhanced Acne Treatment Efficacy: The Role of Personalized Nanogel Formulation, Int. J. of Pharm. Sci., 2025, Vol 3, Issue 4, 1296-1396. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15191340

More related articles
Formulation and Evaluation of Herbal Face ...
Wadavkar Rahul Abasaheb , Waghmare.k.p, Garje.s.y, Sayyed.g.a, ...
A Review on Liposomal Insitu Gel Formulations for ...
Gagan K. S., S. Swetha Malika Devi, Beny Baby, S Rajarajan, Yalla...
Microspheres as Novel Drug Delivery Advantages and...
Eisha Ganju, Shaheen Shama, Rajni Dubey, Bhaskar Kumar Gupta, ...
View more
Development And Optimization of Ranitidine HCL Press Coated Osmotic Floating Tab...
A. Lakshmi Usha, A. V. S. Bhavani, HanumanthuSri Gayatri, Sonali Padhi, Lahari Medikonda, Konkyana T...
Ayurveda And Acne Treatment: A Comprehensive Review...
Avinash Bichave , Dhanashree kasar , Shrutika Patil , ...
Formulation And Evaluation of Herbal Cream Containing Cassia Fistula Linn Flower...
Nanditha V. V., Nagendra R., Hema C. S., Sowbhagya M., Kavana N., K. A. Sujan, Venkatesh, Hanumantha...
View more
Download PDF
Related Articles
Formulation And Evaluation of Anti-Acne Emulgel of Morus Rubra (Mulberry)And Ant...
Dighe Rajashree , Sakshi Mulay , Vaishnavi Vikhe , Nikita Jondhale , Mayuri Dighe , ...
Unravelling Acne Vulgaris: A Comprehensive Review of Epidemiology, Pathogenesis,...
Piyush Lekhraj Yadav, Prajakta Dattatraya Gawade, Manasi Vishwas Shelke , Rahul Rakesh Vishwakarma, ...
Green Nanotechnology in Drug Formulations: Applications and Environmental Impact...
Ramprasad Kadam, Mangesh Galbale, Amol Rakte, Yogesh Shelake, Purva Ghumre, Anand Mathpati, ...
Formulation And Evaluation of Herbal Cream Containing Cassia Fistula Linn Flower...
Nanditha V. V., Nagendra R., Hema C. S., Sowbhagya M., Kavana N., K. A. Sujan, Venkatesh, Hanumantha...
Formulation and Evaluation of Herbal Face ...
Wadavkar Rahul Abasaheb , Waghmare.k.p, Garje.s.y, Sayyed.g.a, ...
More related articles
Formulation and Evaluation of Herbal Face ...
Wadavkar Rahul Abasaheb , Waghmare.k.p, Garje.s.y, Sayyed.g.a, ...
A Review on Liposomal Insitu Gel Formulations for Intranasal Delivery of Antidep...
Gagan K. S., S. Swetha Malika Devi, Beny Baby, S Rajarajan, Yallappa, ...
Microspheres as Novel Drug Delivery Advantages and Application: A Review ...
Eisha Ganju, Shaheen Shama, Rajni Dubey, Bhaskar Kumar Gupta, ...
View more
Formulation and Evaluation of Herbal Face ...
Wadavkar Rahul Abasaheb , Waghmare.k.p, Garje.s.y, Sayyed.g.a, ...
A Review on Liposomal Insitu Gel Formulations for Intranasal Delivery of Antidep...
Gagan K. S., S. Swetha Malika Devi, Beny Baby, S Rajarajan, Yallappa, ...
Microspheres as Novel Drug Delivery Advantages and Application: A Review ...
Eisha Ganju, Shaheen Shama, Rajni Dubey, Bhaskar Kumar Gupta, ...
View more

Copyright © 2025 IJPS. All rights reserved