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  • Comparative Evaluation of Air Purification Efficacy of Herbal Dhoopa Formulation and Commercial Dhoopa Product via Fumigation

  • Photo Jyoti Sharma * Photo Ajay Kumar Ahirwar Photo Dr. Vinod Kumar Sewariya Photo Dr. Suman Jain

  • 1,4School of Studies in Pharmaceutical Science, Jiwaji University, Gwalior, (M.P.), 474011, India.
    2,3Department of Botany, S.M.S Government Model Science College, Gwalior, (M.P.), 474009, India.

Abstract

Microbes in the environment contribute to various health issues. Traditional fumigation methods like Dhoopana and Havana have been used to reduce microbial load. This study prepares a Dhoopa Formulation (DF) using natural ingredients—cow’s ghee, camphor, neem, drumstick, mustard, and guggul gum—known for their antimicrobial properties, and compares its efficacy with commercial Dhoopa products (CD-I, CD-II). DF demonstrated superior microbial reduction in bacterial: 8.3±0.9 CFU/m3; fungal: 0.3±0.3 CFU/m3, achieving 92.26% and 95.00% fumigation effects respectively at the 4th hour. In contrast, CD-I showed 66.09% fumigation effect in bacteria and 80.96% in fungi with reduction bacterial: 26.0±3.5 CFU/m3 & fungal: 1.3±0.3 CFU/m3, while CD-II showed 62.78% (bacterial reduction: 58.3±7.2 CFU/m3) and 75.00% (fungal reduction: 2.0±0.6 CFU/m3) fumigation effect. This study highlights that DF is not only more effective than commercial alternatives but also offers a cost-efficient, eco-friendly air sanitizer with a pleasant fragrance, suitable for an indoor air purifier due to its high antimicrobial activity.

Keywords

Dhoopa Formulation, Fumigation, Commercial Dhoopa, Antibacterial and Antifungal Activity

Introduction

We live in an environment that has billions of microorganisms, and the air we breathe exposes us to the risk of airborne illnesses. These microorganisms—including bacteria, fungi, viruses, and parasites—are capable of transmitting a wide range of diseases that have long posed a threat to human health. Moreover, many of these diseases lack effective treatment, cure, or preventive measures such as vaccines.1. The World Health Organization (WHO) reported that an estimated 50,000 people, everyday men, women, and children die from infectious diseases (WHO, 1996). Despite recent advances, infectious diseases still cause significant morbidity. Prevention is crucial; disinfection and sterilization serve as key preventive measures against all pathogenic microorganisms2. Generally, microbial laboratory fumigation can be done with formaldehyde and potassium permanganate, which effectively destroys all microbes present but can cause adverse reactions such as eye irritation, sulfur compound poisoning, protein aggregation, and may even induce cancer3. Since ancient times, humans have used smoke from medicinal plants to cure disorders. Great saints performed rituals like burning wood and medicinal herbs to purify the environment4. The term "Krimi" is used broadly for all microorganisms, and Dhupana remedies (fumigation) such as Homa, Havana, and Yagya have been used since the Vedic period to protect against pathogenic microbes. The significance of fumigation in Ayurvedic literature includes sterilization of OT, OPD, and wound management5. Dhupana Karma, meaning fumigation, is a natural and traditional method useful in controlling infections by using medicated fumes6,7.  This current study focuses on preparing Dhoopa Formulation (DF) to reduce the airborne microflora count through fumigation, serving as an Air Sanitizer, and compares its effectiveness to commercial Dhoopa products. Many market-available Dhoopas contain ingredients like Guggul (Commiphora wightii), Neem (Azadirachta indica), Turmeric (Curcuma longa), Aake (Calotropis gigantea), Chandan (Santalum album L.), and aromatic resins like Loban (Boswellia serrata), known for their antimicrobial properties8.  Dhoopa Formulation (DF) was prepared using natural agents such as cow’s ghee, camphor, and plant materials like Neem (Azadirachta indica), Drumstick (Moringa oleifera), Mustard (Brassica juncea), and Guggul-Gum resin (Commiphora wightii), which are recognized for their fragrances and antimicrobial activities. Dhoopana Karma, an Ayurvedic fumigation technique, offers a cost-effective, safe alternative to modern chemical sterilization methods9. The selected herbal ingredients and natural products exhibit significant antibacterial and antifungal activities owing to their diverse bioactive compounds. Drumstick bark (Moringa oleifera) contains benzyl isothiocyanate, niazimicin, flavonoids, and tannins, which demonstrate antibacterial effects against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, as well as antifungal action against Aspergillus niger10,11,12,13,14,15,16. Neem bark (Azadirachta indica), rich in azadirachtin, nimbin, gedunin, and quercetin, effectively inhibits Pseudomonas aeruginosa and shows antifungal potential against Candida albicans and A. flavus17,18,19. Guggul resin (Commiphora wightii) possesses guggulsterones E & Z, myrrhanol, and commiphoric acids, providing antibacterial action against S. aureus and E. coli, along with antifungal activity against C. albicans20,21,22,23,24. Mustard yellow seeds (Brassica juncea) contain glucosinolates, allyl isothiocyanate, and sinigrin, which inhibit Salmonella typhi and Bacillus subtilis, and exhibit antifungal effects against A. niger25,26,27. Camphor (Cinnamomum camphora), with camphor, safrole, and linalool as major components, is active against P. aeruginosa and antifungal against Trichophyton spp. 28,29,30. Additionally, cow’s ghee, a source of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), butyric acid, and short-chain fatty acids, shows mild antibacterial effects against Lactobacillus spp. and supports immune modulation against Candida spp.31,32,33. Together, these natural components form a potent antimicrobial blend suitable for traditional fumigation or modern therapeutic applications. This work aims to evaluate the efficacy of air purification and the potential application of Dhoopa Formulation, comparing with commercial Dhoopa products through fumigation for air sanitization. Fumigation using a variety of medicinal herbs can serve as an alternative to chemical agents like potassium permanganate, formalin, and ultraviolet light. Fumigation was conducted with an electric burner in a 1000-cubic-feet room. The study involved specific time intervals to test the effectiveness of all Dhoopa types against bacterial and fungal counts in indoor air.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Collection of Plant materials and certification

Plant materials, Neem bark (Azadirachta indica) and Drumstick bark (Moringa oleifera), were collected from the medicinal gardens of Jiwaji University campus. A taxonomist from CSIR-National Institute of Science Communication certified the materials, which were then screened for quality before being used in the preparation of Herbal Dhoopa. Additional ingredients, including camphor, cow’s ghee, guggul, and mustard yellow seeds, were procured from the local market. Commercial Dhoopa product CD-I and CD-II were purchased from Dindayal and Sri Sri Enterprises respectively of the local market as shown in Fig.1

Fig. 1 Dhoopa Formulation (DF), Commercial Dhoopa-I (CD-I) and Commercial Dhoopa-II (CD-II)

2.2 Preparation of Dhoopa Formulation (DF)

 Dhoopa Formulation was formulated using equal proportions of drumstick bark (Moringa oleifera), neem bark (Azadirachta indica), guggul (Commiphora wightii), mustard yellow seeds (Brassica juncea), camphor (Cinnamomum camphora), and cow’s ghee. The plant materials were first washed with running tap water, shade-dried, and then ground into a moderately coarse powder, which was subsequently sieved through a 60-mesh filter to ensure uniformity. All ingredients were thoroughly mixed to prepare the final herbal Dhoopa formulation, with the exact proportions depicted in Table 1.

Table:1 ingredients of Dhoopa formulation (DF)

S. No.

Ingredients

Scientific Names

Plant part used in DF

Certification No. By NIScPR

1

Drumstick

Moringa oleifera

Bark

NIScPR/RHMD/Consult/2022/4462-63-4

2

Neem

Azadirachta indica

Bark

NIScPR/RHMD/Consult/2022/4462-63-2

3

Guggul

Commiphora wightii

Gum-resin

NIScPR/RHMD/Consult/2022/4462-63-6

4

Mustard yellow

Brassica juncea

Seeds

NIScPR/RHMD/Consult/2022/4462-63-5

5

Cows Ghee

----

Ghee

----

6

Camphor

Cinnamomum camphora

White dried solid Powder

----

 2.3 Instruments

Autoclave (MAC), Laminar Air Flow (MAC) and Electric Balance, instruments were used to conduct the experiments.

2.4 Preparation of Media

For Nutrient Agar (NA), 28 grams was dissolved in 1000 ml of distilled water, while for Sabouraud Dextrose Agar (SDA) (Hi-Media), 65 grams was dissolved in 1000 ml of distilled water. Each solution was then heated to dissolve the agar completely and autoclaved at 15 lbs. pressure (121°C) for 15 minutes. After autoclaving, they were cooled to 45-50°C, poured into sterile Petri dishes under a Laminar Air Flow cabinet, and allowed to solidify, as depicted in Fig. 2.   

Fig. 2 Petri plates preparation

2.5 Pre- & Post-Fumigation Sampling

Nutrient agar (NA) and Sabouraud dextrose agar (SDA) (Hi-Media) were prepared following standard methods within a laminar airflow cabinet for the quantitative analysis of bacterial and fungal loads, respectively. Sample Collection was done through passive settle plate method, both bacterial and fungal samples were collected from a 1000 cubic feet room. Agar plates were kept in the center of the room and exposed according to the standard 1/1/1 schedule (Petri plates open for 1 hour, 1 meter above the floor, and 1 meter from any wall or obstacle) for both pre- and post-fumigation sampling to obtain appropriate surface density for load quantification. Following exposure, collected samples were sealed with Para film, incubated in an upside-down position NA plates at 37°C for 24 hours for bacterial enumeration, and SDA plates at 25°C for 2 days for fungal enumeration34.

2.6 Fumigation and Microbiological Assessment 

For fumigation, 10 gm of each Dhoopa sample was burnt separately in an electric burner within a closed same room of 1000 cubic feet as shown in Fig.3. Air sampling was conducted both before fumigation and after fumigation at hourly intervals (1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th hours). Following an incubation period, the number of distinct bacterial and fungal colonies was enumerated as colony-forming units (CFU). The CFU/m³ was then determined for both pre- and post-fumigation air samples using Omelyanskey’s equation:

N=5aX104bt-1

Where:,N = microbial CFU/m³ of indoor air, a = number of colonies per Petri dish, b = dish surface area (cm²), and t = exposure time (minutes)35.

Fig.3 Fumigation through Electric Burner

3. Statistical Analysis:

Statistical analysis of the Dhoopa Formulation (DF-I) compared with Commercial Dhoopa CD-I and CD-II to evaluate percentage of Fumigation Effect or Mean Reduction of bacterial and fungal colony count CFU/m³ during different set of experiments with time intervals was done by One-Way ANOVA with post hoc analysis by Dunnett’s test to compare the mean of all controls to the means of all treatments with time intervals through GraphPad Prism Version 8.0.2 (263) and MS Excel 2019.

4. RESULTS

4.1 Antibacterial and Antifungal efficacy of Dhoopa Formulation (DF)

The fumigation efficacy of Dhoopa Formulation (DF) was evaluated in 1000 cubic feet area of room, demonstrating a significant reduction statistically (P < 0.001) in both bacterial and fungal colony counts (CFU/m³). Pre-fumigation controls showed a mean bacterial colony count of 107.7±7.3 CFU/m³ and a fungal colony count of 6.7±0.3 CFU/m³. Following DF treatment, bacterial counts progressively decreased to 62.3±5.5 (1st hr.), 45.0±4.7 (2nd hr.), 25.0±7.6 (3rd hr.), and 8.3±0.9 CFU/m³ (4th hr.), representing the highest reduction at 4th hr. (fumigation effect 92.26%). Similarly, fungal counts declined to 4.0±0.6 (1st hr.), 2.7±0.3 (2nd hr), 1.3±0.3 (3rd hr.), and 0.3±0.3 CFU/m³ (4th hr.), achieving the highest reduction at 4th hr. (fumigation effect 95.00%) as shown in Table 2, Fig.4 Graph (A) & (B) and Fig.5.

Table 2 Reduction of Mean Viable Bacterial and Fungal Colony Count CFU/m3 and Fumigation Effect of DF

Fumigating Agent

Dhoopa Formulation (DF)

Time Intervals

Control

1st hr.

2nd hr.

3rd hr.

4th hr.

Viable Bacterial load CFU/m3 (Mean ± SEM)

Mean ± SEM

107.7±7.3

62.3±5.5

45.0±4.7

25.0±7.6

8.3±0.9

Fumigation Effect %

0

42.13%

58.22%

76.79%

92.26%

Viable Fungal load CFU/m3 (Mean ± SEM)

Mean ± SEM

6.7±0.3

4.0±0.6

2.7±0.3

1.3±0.3

0.3±0.3

Fumigation Effect %

0.0

40.00%

60.00%

80.01%

95.00%

P-value

< 0.001

< 0.001

< 0.001

< 0.001

< 0.001

Fig.4 Reduction of Mean Viable Bacterial and Fungal Colony Count CFU/m3 and Fumigation Effect of DF, Values are expressed as Mean ± SEM; *p<0.05; **p<0.002; ***p< 0.001, Dhoopa Formulation (DF) fumigation effect significant from 1sthr. to 4thhr. by repeated measures, One-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s multiple comparisons test.

Fig.5 Antibacterial and Antifungal efficacy of Dhoopa Formulation (DF) on Nutrient Agar (NA) & Sabouraud Dextrose Agar (SDA) Plates with Time Intervals

4.2 Commercial Dhoopa –I (CD-I)

The fumigation efficacy of Commercial Dhoopa –I (CD-I) was evaluated in same room, demonstrating a significant reduction statistically (P < 0.001) in both bacterial and fungal colony counts (CFU/m³). Pre-fumigation controls showed a mean bacterial colony count of 76.7± 9.3 CFU/m³ and a fungal colony count of 7.0± 0.6CFU/m³. Following CD-I treatment, bacterial counts progressively decreased to 65.7± 8.1(1st hr.), 51.0± 9.5 (2nd hr.), 34.3± 4.7 (3rd hr.), and 26.0± 3.5 CFU/m³ (4th hr.), representing the highest reduction at 4th hr. (fumigation effect 66.09%). Similarly, fungal counts declined to 4.0±0.6 (1st hr.), 3.0± 0.6 (2nd hr.), 2.3± 0.3 (3rd hr.), and 1.3± 0.3 CFU/m³ (4th hr.), achieving the highest reduction at 4th hr. (fumigation effect 80.96%) as shown in Table 3, Fig.6 Graph (C) & (D) and Fig.7.

Table 3 Reduction of Mean Viable Bacterial and Fungal Colony Count CFU/m3 and Fumigation Effect of Commercial Dhoopa –I (CD-I)

Fumigating Agent

Commercial Dhoopa-I (CD-I)

Time Intervals

Control

1st hr.

2nd hr.

3rd hr.

4th hr.

Viable Bacterial load CFU/m3 (Mean ± SEM)

Mean ± SEM

76.7± 9.3

65.7± 8.1

51.0± 9.5

34.3± 4.7

26.0± 3.5

Fumigation Effect %

0.0

14.35%

33.48%

55.22%

66.09%

Viable Fungal load CFU/m3 (Mean ± SEM)

Mean ± SEM

7.0± 0.6

4.0± 0.6

3.0± 0.6

2.3± 0.3

1.3± 0.3

Fumigation Effect %

0.0

42.86%

57.14%

66.67%

80.96%

P-value

< 0.001

< 0.001

< 0.001

< 0.001

< 0.001

Fig.6 Reduction of Mean Viable Bacterial and Fungal Colony Count CFU/m3 and Fumigation Effect of Commercial Dhoopa-I (CD-I), Values are expressed as Mean ± SEM; *p<0.05; **p<0.002; ***p< 0.001, Commercial Dhoopa-I (CD-I) fumigation effect significant from 1sthr. to 4thhr. by repeated measures, One-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s multiple comparisons test.

Fig.7 Antibacterial and Antifungal efficacy of Commercial Dhoopa -I (CD-I) on Nutrient Agar (NA) & Sabouraud Dextrose Agar (SDA) Plates with Time Intervals

4.3 Commercial Dhoopa -II (CD-II)

 The fumigation efficacy of Commercial Dhoopa -II (CD-II) was evaluated in a 1000 cubic feet same room, demonstrating a significant reduction statistically (P < 0.001) in both bacterial and fungal colony counts (CFU/m³). Pre-fumigation controls showed a mean bacterial colony count of 156.7±8.1 CFU/m³ and a fungal colony count of 8.0±0.6 CFU/m³. Following CD-II treatment, bacterial counts progressively decreased to 122.3±5.0 (1st hr.), 91.7±2.6 (2nd hr.), 74.0±7.6 (3rd hr.), and 58.3±7.2CFU/m³ (4th hr.), representing the highest reduction at 4th hr. (fumigation effect 62.78%). Similarly, fungal counts declined to 4.7±0.3 (1st hr.), 4.0±0.6 (2nd hr.), 3.0±0.6 (3rd hr.), and 2.0±0.6CFU/m³ (4th hr.), achieving the highest reduction at 4th hr. (fumigation effect 75.00%) as shown in Table 4, Fig.8 Graph (E) & (F) and Fig.9.

Table 4 Reduction of Mean Viable Bacterial and Fungal Colony Count CFU/m3 and Fumigation Effect of Commercial Dhoopa–II (CD-II)

Fumigating Agent

Commercial Dhoopa CD-II

Time Intervals

Control

1st hr.

2nd hr.

3rd hr.

4th hr.

Viable Bacterial load CFU/m3 (Mean ± SEM)

Mean ± SEM

156.7±8.1

122.3±5.0

91.7±2.6

74.0±7.6

58.3±7.2

Fumigation Effect %

0.0

21.95%

41.50%

52.78%

62.78%

Viable Fungal load CFU/m3 (Mean ± SEM)

Mean ± SEM

8.0±0.6

4.7±0.3

4.0±0.6

3.0±0.6

2.0±0.6

Fumigation Effect %

0.0

41.66%

50.00%

62.50%

75.00%

P-value

< 0.001

< 0.001

< 0.001

< 0.001

< 0.001

Fig.8 Reduction of Mean Viable Bacterial and Fungal Colony Count CFU/m3 and Fumigation Effect of Commercial Dhoopa-II (CD-II), Values are expressed as Mean ± SEM; *p<0.05; **p<0.002; ***p< 0.001, Commercial Dhoopa-II (CD-II) fumigation effect significant from 1sthr. to 4thhr. by repeated measures, One-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s multiple comparisons test.

Fig.9 Antibacterial and Antifungal efficacy of Commercial Dhoopa -II (CD-II) on Nutrient Agar (NA) & Sabouraud Dextrose Agar (SDA) Plates with Time Intervals

4.4 Comparative Percentage of Fumigation Effect of Dhoopa formulation (DF) with Commercial Dhoopa’s (CD-I and CD-II)

This study is based on a comparison of Dhoopa formulation (DF) with Commercial Dhoopa (CD-I and CD-II) fumigation in the same room and the percentage of effectiveness of these Fumigation Herbal Disinfectant agents. In Fig.10 Graph (A) showed Comparative percentage of Fumigation on Bacterial colony count (CFU/m3) in same room 42.13%,58.22%,76.79%, and 92.26% of DF, 14.35%,33.48%,55.22% and 66.09% of CD-I and 21.95%,41.50%,52.78%, and 62.78% CD-II with respect to time interval of 1st 2nd, 3rd and 4th hrs. of fumigation. In Fig.10 Graph (B) showed percentage of Fumigation on fungal colony count (CFU/m3) 40.00%, 60.00%, 80.01%, and 95.00% of DF, 42.86%,57.14%,66.67% and 80.96% of CD-I and 41.66%,50.00%,62.50% and 75.00% CD-II with respect to time interval of 1st 2nd, 3rd and 4th hrs. of fumigation.

Fig.10 Graph (A) and (B) shows the Comparative Percentage of Fumigation Effect on Bacterial and Fungal colony count (CFU/m3) of DF, CD-I, and CD-II with Time Intervals

5. Discussion

Contemporary sterilization techniques such as formalin gas fumigation pose significant health hazards to healthcare workers, including potential carcinogenic effects on exposed populations3. Consequently, investigating alternative methods for infection prevention and control is imperative. This study explores the potential of Indian traditional Dhoopana karma, a long-standing practice utilizing fumigation with antimicrobial substances7. Commercially available Dhoopa’s offer advantages of cost-effectiveness and accessibility within local Indian markets and possess documented antimicrobial properties suitable for air sanitization4. However, the efficacy of Ayurvedic Dhoopana formulations remains inadequately characterized. The present research focuses on developing a specific Dhoopa Formulation (DF) aimed at reducing airborne microflora through fumigation.  We evaluated its effectiveness as an air sanitizer and compared its performance to commercial Dhoopa products (CD-I, CD-II). Results showed that DF achieved maximal microbial load reduction at the 4-hour post-fumigation interval. Specifically, all performed triplet experiments evaluated the fumigation efficacy of Dhoopa Formulation (DF), Commercial Dhoop (CD-I), and (CD-II) in the same room, demonstrating significant (p < 0.001) reductions in bacterial and fungal colony counts (CFU/m³). In the same room set up, DF reduced bacterial counts from 107.7±7.3 to 8.3±0.9 CFU/m³ (92.26% fumigation effect) and fungal counts from 6.7±0.3 to 0.3±0.3 CFU/m³ (95.00% fumigation effect) by the 4th hr. Similarly, CD-I exhibited a bacterial reduction from 76.7± 9.3 to 26.0± 3.5 CFU/m³ (66.09% fumigation effect) and fungal reduction from 7.0± 0.6 to 1.3± 0.3 CFU/m³ (80.96% fumigation effect) and CD-II showed a bacterial reduction from 156.7±8.1 to 58.3±7.2 CFU/m³ (62.78% fumigation effect) and fungal reduction from 8.0±0.6 to 2.0±0.6 CFU/m³ (80.96% fumigation effect). The herbal ingredients and natural products incorporated in the Dhoopa Formulation (DF) contain diverse bioactive compounds that impart significant antibacterial and antifungal activities. This highlights the superior antimicrobial efficacy of DF over the tested commercial products, thereby supporting its potential application as an effective natural air sanitizer.

6. CONCLUSION

The comparative evaluation clearly demonstrates that the Dhoopa Formulation (DF) possesses superior fumigation efficacy over the tested commercial products (CD-I and CD-II). This enhanced effectiveness can be attributed to the synergistic action of diverse bioactive compounds present in its herbal and natural ingredients, which confer potent antibacterial and antifungal properties. Therefore, DF shows strong potential as a safe, natural, and effective air sanitizer for reducing microbial contamination in indoor environments. Therefore, DF can be used as an alternative for sterilization in various settings, including healthcare Facilities, offices, and houses for fumigation, instead of chemical methods or commercial Dhoopa products

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Authors acknowledge the late Prof. GBKS Prasad, Centre of Ayurvedic Translational Research, Gwalior, (M.P.), India, for continuous support, motivation, and supervision.

Declarations

Conflicts of interest

There is no conflict of interest to disclose.

Funding

The author(s) reported there is no funding associated with the work featured in this article.

Author’s Contribution

Jyoti Sharma: Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, Validation, Data curation, Methodology Ajay Kumar Ahirwar: Formal analysis, Investigation, Software, Visualization, Writing – review & editing Dr. Vinod Kumar Sewariya: Writing – review & editing Dr. Suman Jain: Supervision, Resources, Visualization, Writing– review & editing.

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  20. Zhu, N., Rafi, M. M., DiPaola, R. S., Xin, J., Chin, C. K., Badmaev, V., & Ho, C. T. (2001). Bioactive constituents from gum guggul (Commiphora wightii). Phytochemistry,56(7),723-727. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(00)00485-4
  21. Sarup, P., Bala, S., & Kamboj, S. (2015). Pharmacology and Phytochemistry of Oleo-Gum Resin of Commiphora wightii (Guggulu). Scientifica,138-039.https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/138039
  22. Kumara, A. A. J. P., Jayratne, D. L., & Dayaratna, T. (2017). Assessments of antibacterial potential of Commiphora mukul (Guggulu Extract). Int J Pharma Res Health Sci, 5(2),1650-1653.
  23. Ishnava, K. B., Mahida, Y. N., & Mohan, J. S. S. (2010). In vitro assessments of antibacterial potential of Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari. gum extract. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy,2(7), 91-96.
  24. Das, G., Tantengco, O. A. G., Tundis, R., Robles, J. A. H., Loizzo, M. R., Shin, H. S., & Patra, J. K.  (2022). Glucosinolates and Omega-3 Fatty Acids from Mustard Seeds: Phytochemistry and Pharmacology. Plants (Basel, Switzerland), 11(17),2290.https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11172290
  25. Patel, J. K., Chaudhari, A., Goswami, H., & Patil, P. B. (2023). Investigation of antimicrobial activity and characterization of isolated allyl isothiocyanate. Int. J. Drug Deliv. Technol,13,1406-1411.
  26. Grygier, A. (2022). Mustard seeds as a bioactive component of food. Food Reviews International,39(7), 4088-4101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2021.2015774
  27. Tarar, A., & Peng, C. A. (2022). Enhancement of antibacterial activity of sinigrin-capped silver nanoparticles in combination with myrosinase. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 10(3),107796. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2022.107796
  28. Sobhy, S., Al-Askar, A. A., Bakhiet, E. K., Elsharkawy, M. M., Arishi, A. A., Behiry, S. I., & Abdelkhalek, A. (2023). Phytochemical characterization and antifungal efficacy of camphor (Cinnamomum camphora L.) extract against phytopathogenic fungi. Separations,10(3),189.https://doi.org/10.3390/separations10030189
  29. Fazmiya, M. J. A., Sultana, A., Rahman, K., Heyat, M. B. B., Sumbul, Akhtar, F., Khan, S., & Appiah, S. C. Y. (2022). Current Insights on Bioactive Molecules, Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory, and Other Pharmacological Activities of Cinnamomum camphora Linn. Oxidative medicine and cellular longevity, 9354555.https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/9354555
  30. Dognini, J., Meneghetti, E. K., Teske, M. N., Begnini, I. M., Rebelo, R. A., Dalmarco, E. M., & de Gasper, A. L. (2012). Antibacterial activity of high safrole contain essential oils from Piper xylosteoides (Kunth) Steudel. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 24(3), 241-244.https://doi.org/10.1080/10412905.2012.676768
  31. Yang, B., Gao, H., Stanton, C., Ross, R. P., Zhang, H., Chen, Y. Q. & Chen, W. (2017).  Bacterial conjugated linoleic acid production and their applications. Progress in lipid research,68,26-36.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plipres.2017.09.002
  32. Huang, C. B., Alimova, Y., Myers, T. M., & Ebersole, J. L. (2011). Short-and medium-chain fatty acids exhibit antimicrobial activity for oral microorganisms. Archives of oral biology, 56(7),650-654.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archoralbio.2011.01.011
  33. Makowski, Z., Lipi?ski, K., & Mazur-Ku?nirek, M. (2022). The Effects of Different Forms of Butyric Acid on the Performance of Turkeys, Carcass Quality, Incidence of Footpad Dermatitis and Economic Efficiency. Animals: an open access journal from MDPI, 12(11), 1458. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12111458
  34. Pasquarella, C., Pitzurra, O., & Savino, A. (2000). The index of microbial air contamination. Journal of hospital infection,46(4),241-256.
  35. Omeliansky VL. Manual in Microbiology. Moscow: USSR, Academy of Science (1940).

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  14. González-Romero, J., Guerra-Hernández, E. J., & Rodríguez-Pérez, C. (2022). Bioactive compounds from Moringa oleifera as promising protectors of in vivo inflammation and oxidative stress processes. In Current advances for development of functional foods modulating inflammation and oxidative stress, 379-399 Academic Press.https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-823482-2.00011-X
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  18. Wylie, M. R., & Merrell, D. S. (2022). The antimicrobial potential of the neem tree Azadirachta indica. Frontiers in pharmacology,13, 891-535.https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.891535
  19. Mohideen, M., Abidin, N. S. I. Z., Idris, M. I. H., & Kamaruzaman, N. A. (2022). An overview of antibacterial and antifungal effects of Azadirachta indica crude extract: a narrative review,https://dx.doi.org/10.13005/bpj/2391
  20. Zhu, N., Rafi, M. M., DiPaola, R. S., Xin, J., Chin, C. K., Badmaev, V., & Ho, C. T. (2001). Bioactive constituents from gum guggul (Commiphora wightii). Phytochemistry,56(7),723-727. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(00)00485-4
  21. Sarup, P., Bala, S., & Kamboj, S. (2015). Pharmacology and Phytochemistry of Oleo-Gum Resin of Commiphora wightii (Guggulu). Scientifica,138-039.https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/138039
  22. Kumara, A. A. J. P., Jayratne, D. L., & Dayaratna, T. (2017). Assessments of antibacterial potential of Commiphora mukul (Guggulu Extract). Int J Pharma Res Health Sci, 5(2),1650-1653.
  23. Ishnava, K. B., Mahida, Y. N., & Mohan, J. S. S. (2010). In vitro assessments of antibacterial potential of Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari. gum extract. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy,2(7), 91-96.
  24. Das, G., Tantengco, O. A. G., Tundis, R., Robles, J. A. H., Loizzo, M. R., Shin, H. S., & Patra, J. K.  (2022). Glucosinolates and Omega-3 Fatty Acids from Mustard Seeds: Phytochemistry and Pharmacology. Plants (Basel, Switzerland), 11(17),2290.https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11172290
  25. Patel, J. K., Chaudhari, A., Goswami, H., & Patil, P. B. (2023). Investigation of antimicrobial activity and characterization of isolated allyl isothiocyanate. Int. J. Drug Deliv. Technol,13,1406-1411.
  26. Grygier, A. (2022). Mustard seeds as a bioactive component of food. Food Reviews International,39(7), 4088-4101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2021.2015774
  27. Tarar, A., & Peng, C. A. (2022). Enhancement of antibacterial activity of sinigrin-capped silver nanoparticles in combination with myrosinase. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 10(3),107796. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2022.107796
  28. Sobhy, S., Al-Askar, A. A., Bakhiet, E. K., Elsharkawy, M. M., Arishi, A. A., Behiry, S. I., & Abdelkhalek, A. (2023). Phytochemical characterization and antifungal efficacy of camphor (Cinnamomum camphora L.) extract against phytopathogenic fungi. Separations,10(3),189.https://doi.org/10.3390/separations10030189
  29. Fazmiya, M. J. A., Sultana, A., Rahman, K., Heyat, M. B. B., Sumbul, Akhtar, F., Khan, S., & Appiah, S. C. Y. (2022). Current Insights on Bioactive Molecules, Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory, and Other Pharmacological Activities of Cinnamomum camphora Linn. Oxidative medicine and cellular longevity, 9354555.https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/9354555
  30. Dognini, J., Meneghetti, E. K., Teske, M. N., Begnini, I. M., Rebelo, R. A., Dalmarco, E. M., & de Gasper, A. L. (2012). Antibacterial activity of high safrole contain essential oils from Piper xylosteoides (Kunth) Steudel. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 24(3), 241-244.https://doi.org/10.1080/10412905.2012.676768
  31. Yang, B., Gao, H., Stanton, C., Ross, R. P., Zhang, H., Chen, Y. Q. & Chen, W. (2017).  Bacterial conjugated linoleic acid production and their applications. Progress in lipid research,68,26-36.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plipres.2017.09.002
  32. Huang, C. B., Alimova, Y., Myers, T. M., & Ebersole, J. L. (2011). Short-and medium-chain fatty acids exhibit antimicrobial activity for oral microorganisms. Archives of oral biology, 56(7),650-654.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archoralbio.2011.01.011
  33. Makowski, Z., Lipi?ski, K., & Mazur-Ku?nirek, M. (2022). The Effects of Different Forms of Butyric Acid on the Performance of Turkeys, Carcass Quality, Incidence of Footpad Dermatitis and Economic Efficiency. Animals: an open access journal from MDPI, 12(11), 1458. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12111458
  34. Pasquarella, C., Pitzurra, O., & Savino, A. (2000). The index of microbial air contamination. Journal of hospital infection,46(4),241-256.
  35. Omeliansky VL. Manual in Microbiology. Moscow: USSR, Academy of Science (1940).

Photo
Jyoti Sharma
Corresponding author

School of Studies in Pharmaceutical Science, Jiwaji University, Gwalior, (M.P.), 474011, India.

Photo
Ajay Kumar Ahirwar
Co-author

Department of Botany, S.M.S Government Model Science College, Gwalior, (M.P.), 474009, India.

Photo
Dr. Vinod Kumar Sewariya
Co-author

Department of Botany, S.M.S Government Model Science College, Gwalior, (M.P.), 474009, India.

Photo
Dr. Suman Jain
Co-author

School of Studies in Pharmaceutical Science, Jiwaji University, Gwalior, (M.P.), 474011, India.

Jyoti Sharma*, Ajay Kumar Ahirwar, Vinod Kumar Sewariya, Suman Jain, Comparative Evaluation of Air Purification Efficacy of Herbal Dhoopa Formulation and Commercial Dhoopa Product via Fumigation, Int. J. of Pharm. Sci., 2025, Vol 3, Issue 9, 3035-3048 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17201722

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