Dr. Shivajirao Kadam College of Pharmacy, Kasabe-Digraj-416305, Sangli, India.
Achyranthes aspera Linn. (Amaranthaceae), commonly known as Apamarga in Ayurveda, has garnered substantial interest due to its diverse ethnomedicinal applications and scientifically validated bioactivities. Widely distributed across tropical and subtropical regions, A. aspera is traditionally used in the treatment of skin disorders, piles, asthma, diabetes, and inflammatory conditions. Its rich phytochemical profile, comprising alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids, steroids, ecdysterone, oleanolic acid, and glycosides, underpins its broad therapeutic potential. Modern research substantiates its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, hypolipidemic, antidiabetic, and wound-healing effects, thus confirming traditional claims and expanding its pharmacological relevance. Recent advancements in formulation science have enabled the incorporation of A. aspera extracts into gels, ointments, tablets, and herbal creams, enhancing stability and patient compliance. Additionally, the use of its seed mucilage as a biodegradable excipient offers promising sustainable solutions in drug delivery. The plant’s demonstrated anti-aging and skin-rejuvenating properties further highlight its potential in cosmetic applications. This review aims to present a comprehensive overview of A. aspera, focusing on its morphology, phytochemistry, ethnopharmacology, pharmacological properties,and formulation innovations, with an emphasis on bridging Ayurvedic tradition and contemporary biomedical validation to promote its inclusion in integrated healthcare and pharmaceutical research
In recent decades, Achyranthes aspera Linn. (Family: Amaranthaceae) has gained significant attention in the fields of pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and nutraceutical sciences owing to its broad spectrum of bioactivities and ethnomedicinal relevance. Traditionally known as Apamarga in Ayurveda, the plant is distributed widely throughout tropical and subtropical regions and has been extensively employed in indigenous medicine for treating various ailments such as skin disorders, piles, asthma, diabetes, and inflammatory conditions.The therapeutic potential of A. aspera is attributed to its rich phytochemical profile, including alkaloids (achyranthine), saponins, flavonoids, steroids, ecdysterone, oleanolic acid, and glycosides, which contribute to its diverse pharmacological properties.Modern pharmacological investigations have confirmed its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, hypolipidemic, anti-diabetic, and wound-healing activities, thereby substantiating its traditional claims and broadening its therapeutic scope . Notably, A. aspera has been successfully incorporated into novel dosage forms such as gels, ointments, tablets, and herbal creams, signifying a shift from classical decoction-based preparations to standardized, evidence-based modern formulations.[1]
Fig.No 1.Plant of Achyranthes aspera Linn.
The seed mucilage of A. aspera has also emerged as a biodegradable pharmaceutical excipient, demonstrating excellent binding, swelling, and disintegration properties, which make it a potential alternative to synthetic polymers in sustainable drug delivery systems Recent research has further explored its potential in cosmetic formulations, where extracts of A. aspera have shown significant anti-aging and skin-rejuvenating effects through inhibition of elastase and tyrosinase enzymes, supporting its role in natural skincare applications.These findings underline the plant’s versatility in multiple therapeutic and industrial domains.This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of Achyranthes aspera, focusing on its phytochemical composition, pharmacological properties, Ayurvedic importance, and applications in pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and cosmetic formulations. It further discusses the therapeutic mechanisms, formulation advancements, and scientific validation that position A. aspera as a promising candidate bridging traditional Ayurvedic wisdom and modern biomedical innovation.To confirm Achyranthes aspera's significance as a powerful medicinal herb and to promote its inclusion in pharmacotherapeutic and integrated health care research by fusing traditional Ayurvedic views with contemporary scientific validation.[2]
Taxonomic Classification[3]
Vernacular names of Achyranthesaspera[4]
PLANT DESCRIPTION (MORPHOLOGY)
Achyranthes aspera is an annual or perennial herb with a woody base that can reach a height of one to two meters. It may be prostrate or upright. The nodes are bulging and frequently pink, while the base is simple or branching, woody, angular, or ribbed.
Roots: 0.1–1.0 cm thick, somewhat ribbed, cylindrical roots with secondary and tertiary roots that gradually Taper in shape
Stem: The plant is hairy, erect, branching, cylindrical, solid, angular, and herbaceous above, with green internodes and pink or violet nodes below. It is also longitudinally striated. When it dries, it looks hollow.[5]
Leaf: The leaves have a velvety, tomentose texture and are placed in opposition to one another. They assume an obovate shape with a white, hairy surface and wavy edges. The leaf petiole is formed like a crescent and has a thick, single-layered cuticle. The midrib's single-layer epidermis is encircled by two to three layers of parenchyma on the lower surface and four to five layers on the upper surface. The average leaf measures 5.22 cm in length and 2.5 cm in breadth. They have anomocytic stomata on the bottom epidermis and come in a variety of sizes.
Seeds: The brown seeds have a rounded base and a shortened tip. They have a sub-cylindric form and are endospermic.[6]
Fig No.2.Root of Achyranthes aspera
Fig No.3.Stem of Achyranthes aspera Linn
Fig No.4 Leaves of Achyranthes aspera
Fig No.5 Seed of Achyranthes aspera
Phytochemical Constituents:
The stem and aerial shoots include triterpenoids, saponins, and long-chain aliphatic compounds such as 17-pentatriacontanol and 36-heptacosanone. These compounds may have anti- inflammatory and hepatoprotective qualities. Phytosterols like β-sitosterol and stigmasterol were also discovered. The methanolic stem extract has shown potent antioxidant and free- radical scavenging action because it contains polyphenolic components.[7]
The roots are where most alkaloids, ecdysteroids, and triterpenoid saponins are kept. The significant alkaloid achyranthine, which has been isolated from aqueous preparations, is responsible for the plant's hypotensive and smooth muscle relaxant qualities. The roots also contain ecdysterone (20-hydroxyecdysone), a naturally occurring steroid that supports anabolic and adaptogenic qualities. Additionally, betulinic acid, ursolic acid, and oleanolic acid have been found as significant triterpenes. Several oleanane-type saponins with antifungal and anti- inflammatory qualities are known as achyranthosides A–D.[8]
The numerous secondary metabolites found in the leaves of Achyranthes aspera Linn. contribute to the plant's therapeutic value. Phytochemical screening and chromatographic analysis have been used to identify alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, steroids, phenols, and terpenoids. GC-MS analysis of ethanolic leaf extracts identified compounds such as phytol, n-hexadecanoic acid, linoleic acid, stigmasterol, and β-sitosterol that had antioxidant, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory properties. Additionally, flavonoids such as quercetin, rutin, and kaempferol that have the ability to scavenge free radicals and repair wounds were discovered. Its high saponin content supports its use as a diuretic and expectorant in conventional medicine.[9]
Achyranthes aspera seeds and fruits are rich in long-chain hydrocarbons including hexatriacontane and triacontanol, as well as saponins and sapogenins based on oleanolic acid. The glycosidic moieties of seed saponins contain glucose, galactose, xylose, and rhamnose, according to chemical analysis. Alkaloids and fatty acids are also present in seeds, which support their anthelmintic and antibacterial properties. The chemical diversity of the seed constituents was confirmed by HPLC analyses of seed extracts, which showed several alkaloid fractions. Stearic, palmitic, and linoleic acids, which improve membrane integrity and antioxidant defence, are found in the lipid portion of seeds.[10]
The flowers contain hexadecanoic acid methyl ester, heptacosane, nonacosane, and 1,2- benzenedicarboxylic acid diisooctyl ester.FTIR analysis confirms the presence of alcohols, esters, carboxylic acids, hydrocarbons, aromatic rings, and amines.These constituents indicate that the flower extract is rich in fatty acids, long-chain hydrocarbons, and aromatic esters.[11]
ETHNOMEDICINAL USES
Asthma, bleeding, boils, bronchitis, colic, cold, cough, debility, dog bites, dysentery, ear problems, headaches, leucoderma, pneumonia, renal problems, scorpion bites, snake bites, and skin conditions are all treated with A. aspera, which is highly valued by traditional healers. Pneumonia is treated by boiling crushed plant in water. For gastrointestinal issues, the root is infused. For inflammatory disorders of the body, a decoction made from the entire plant is administered. Abdominal diseases can be treated with root decoction. For diarrhoea, 2–5 grammes of dried leaf powder are administered with honey. Skin conditions including scabies and prutitis can be effectively treated with leaf juice.Toxic bites are treated externally with leaf paste. Abdominal issues and bleeding piles can be effectively treated with whole plant ash. A. aspera root is used to treat halitosis and clean the mouth. Twig infusion is also used as a toothache wash. For night blindness, root extract is applied as an eye drop before bed. When dangerous snakes and reptiles bite, the flowering spikes or seeds are pulverised and combined with water to create a paste that is applied externally. Additionally, A. aspera is utilised to treat cutaneous conditions and night blindness.
When a patient has been bitten by a snake, the ground root is administered with water till they throw up and regain consciousness. It is recommended to breathe in the vapours of A. aspera combined with Smilax ovalifera roots to enhance appetite and treat a variety of stomach conditions. It helps with haemorrhoids; the leaves and seeds are hydrophobic, carminative, emetic, relieve swelling, aid in digestion, and clear phlegm. The plant's ash is applied externally to treat warts and ulcers. To relieve a tense back, crushed leaves are applied. Ophthalmia and corneal opacities are treated with a paste made from the roots in water. Fresh leaf paste is used to relieve wasp bite discomfort.
The herb can help with scabies, rheumatism, liver problems, and other skin conditions. It has calming qualities as well. A. aspera is used to treat toothaches, wounds, asthma, and other conditions, according to our ethnobotanical survey of Gujjar people living in Rajaji National Park, Uttarakhand, India. Rajaji National Park's Gujjars utilise the plant's fresh stem as a toothache remedy. Crushed leaves are applied to wounds. To treat diarrhoea, a baby is given one teaspoon of crushed root three times a day along with water and sugar. To lower blood pressure, seeds are boiled in milk and consumed for a few days.
When treating asthma, one teaspoon of powdered roasted seeds is taken orally till the condition improves. Urinary tract infections are treated twice a day with one table spoon of root powder. Weight loss and obesity control are achieved by cooking 20 grammes of A. aspera seeds with milk and sugar and taking 1 cup twice daily for two to three weeks. To treat cholera, a decoction of 15 grammes of root powder is administered twice day for three days. When treating asthma, one teaspoon of powdered roasted seeds is taken orally until the illness is resolved.To treat dog bites and animal bites, a paste made from leaves and roots is administered after 30 minutes of sprinkling chilli powder on the bite site. On insect bites and scorpion stings, a paste made from roots and leaves is administered externally.[12]
PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITY:
The plant's antibacterial and antifungal qualities have been the subject of numerous investigations. Strong antibacterial qualities of the plant have been reported. Antibacterial qualities are demonstrated by seed stem leaf extract in ethyl acetate, leaf and stem extracts in ethanol and methanol, leaf and stem extract in ethanol, and aqueous flower extract. The antibacterial and antifungal qualities of dried leaf extracts in methanol, petroleum ether, and chloroform have been reported. It was shown that the plant had antibacterial qualities against hospital-derived gram-positive bacteria.The plant's tannins, saponins, flavonoids, and alkaloids may be responsible for its antibacterial qualities. The antibacterial efficacy of Achyranthes aspera extracts against a range of pathogenic pathogens, such as Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Citrobacter species, Bacillus subtilis, and Micrococcus species, was evaluated using the disc diffusion and well plate method. Extracts from Achyranthes aspera showed the greatest suppression of E. coli (17 mm), followed by Pseudomonas species (14 mm), Citrobacter species (12 mm), Bacillus species (12 mm), and Micrococcus species (12 mm).[7]
In animal models, Achyranthes aspera alcoholic and ethanolic extracts have demonstrated notable anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic benefits, especially at dosages of 100–500 mg/kg. One important alkaloid, achyranthine, showed similar effectiveness to common medications such as betamethasone and phenylbutazone, but with less stomach side effects. The extract significantly improved adrenal ascorbic acid and cholesterol levels, decreased paw oedema, and adjusted organ weights. Immunologically, A. aspera extracts increased levels of IgM, IgG1, and IgG3 antibodies and enhanced humoral and cell-mediated immunity. Extracts from roots and seeds showed significant immunostimulatory potential. Improved immunological indicators such serum globulin levels and lysozyme activity were also seen in fish studies. The plant improved immune response and disease resistance. As a result, A. aspera has strong immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory qualities in all species.[6]
Achyranthes aspera root extracts have been shown to have spermicidal effects on rat and human sperm, as the most successful extracts for sperm immobilization, viability, acrosome status, 5'-nucleotidase activity, and nuclear chromatin decondensation were determined to be hydroethanolic, n-hexane, and chloroform. revealed that Achyranthes aspera root ethanolic extract exhibits post-coital antifertility action in female albino rats. When administered orally at 200 mg/kg body weight, the extract demonstrated 83.3% anti-implantation activity, according to their study.[13]
Numerous tests have been used to evaluate the plant's antioxidant properties. The high content of alkaloids and flavonoids in A. aspera leaves, which lower lipid peroxidation, is evidence of the plant's antioxidant activity. The 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging assay and superoxide scavenging activities demonstrate that the aqueous extract of A. aspera leaves more successfully prevents the generation of free radicals in vitro than the ethanolic extract. The methanolic extract of the leaves and roots of A. aspera showed more antioxidant activity when tested using the DPPH scavenging assay. The petroleum ether extract of the aerial parts of A. aspera var. Porphyristachya shows higher antioxidant activity than the ethyl acetate and chloroform extracts when tested for antioxidant activity using the DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP tests. In vitro studies have shown that A. aspera var. Rubro fusca can scavenge free radicals.
Some studies claim that A. aspera can function as an antioxidant and protect DNA. When compared to traditional ascorbic acid (IC50 = 11.73 μg/ml), ethanolic leaf extract of A. aspera leaf powder (IC50 = 7.49 μg/ml) shows good antioxidant activity using the phosphomolybdenum assay.[14]
Root extract was found to have significant hormonal effects on insect moulting. Ethanol crude extract demonstrated potent larvicidal effect against Boophilis microplus when administered to tick larvae. Larvicidal saponins produced from leaf extracts have been tested against Culex quinquefasciatus and Aedes aegypti. The effectiveness of ethyl acetate leaf extract against Aedes subpictus mosquito larvae was found. The plant's capacity to inhibit mosquito larvae was reported. Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus mosquitoes were found to be effectively killed by the bioactivity of steam-distilled leaf and stem essential oils. The plant's leaf extracts have reportedly shown efficacy against Aedes aegypti.[7]
Achyranthine, a water-soluble alkaloid extracted from Achyranthes aspera, dilated blood vessels, raised the pace and amplitude of breathing in frogs and dogs, and lowered heart rate and blood pressure. The alkaloid's spasmogenic activity was not inhibited by tubocurarine, and its contractile effect on frog rectus abdominal muscle at 0.5 mg/ml was less than that of acetylcholine (0.1 mg/ml). Antihypertensive Activity: According to certain research, Achyranthes aspera may have antihypertensive properties, which may contribute to its potential use in the treatment of hypertension. It is crucial to stress that although Achyranthes aspera exhibits promise in a number of pharmacological activities, more investigation is required to comprehend the underlying mechanisms of action, pinpoint the precise active compounds causing these effects, and assess their safety and effectiveness for possible therapeutic use in humans. Before utilising Achyranthes aspera for medicinal purposes, it is crucial to speak with trained healthcare specialists, just like with any herbal medicine or possible medication.[15]
In rats with triton-induced hyperlipidaemia, an alcoholic extract of A. aspera lowers serum cholesterol (TC), phospholipid (PL), triglycerides (TG), and total lipids (TL). The hypolipidemic benefits of the complete plant's aqueous extract were tested on rats fed sesame oil. When A. aspera extracts are used, lipid peroxidation is significantly reduced and returns to normal. When compared to traditional atorvastatin, oral administration of an ethanolic and aqueous extract of powdered leaves significantly lowers serum triglyceride and cholesterol levels in rats with cholesterol-induced hyperlipidaemia in a dose-dependent way. The hypolipidemic effect of A. aspera is brought on by a mechanism that decreases the absorption of exogenous cholesterol and increases the production of bile acid through endogenous cholesterol conversion.[14]
Achyranthes aspera has been shown in several studies to have anti-cancer properties. Swiss albino mice that have been treated with mineral oils may be used in this study. The anticancer properties of the flowers and leaves were examined. Mice may be given dosages of the plant's crude extract at varying concentrations. Compared to other extracts, the ether extract may have more beneficial benefits against tumours.[16]
Scientific research supports the traditional usage of Achyranthes aspera for wound healing. It has been demonstrated that the plant's extracts speed up the healing of wounds by encouraging angiogenesis, collagen formation, and cell proliferation.[15]
The hydroalcoholic extract of the leaves and roots and the methanolic extract of the complete plant showed increased analgesic efficacy in a dose-dependent manner using different methodologies. The leaf's methanolic extract significantly reduced acetic acid-induced writhing syndrome at higher dosages. Higher oral medicine dosages cause rats to writhe less than the control group. When compared to the control group, higher extract doses cause longer reaction times in the tail flick and hot plate procedures.[14]
In Wistar rats with occupational asthma caused by toluene diisocyanate (TDI), an ethanolic extract of Achyranthes aspera has bronchoprotective effects. Blood and bronchoalveolar (BAL) fluid were used to count the total and differential leucocytes. Lung histological analysis was done to look into the inflammatory state of the airways, and liver homogenate was used to measure oxidative stress. The findings imply that rats given Achyranthes aspera did not exhibit any abnormalities in their airways.[13]
In early biological studies, a 50% ethanolic extract of the whole plant showed hypoglycemic effects in rats. Nevertheless, there were no appreciable effects on the isolated guinea pig ileum, cardiovascular system (CVS), central nervous system (CNS), or breathing. Furthermore, the extract showed no antiviral, anti-tumor, anti-helminthic, or anti-protozoal qualities. In rats, the extract's Maximum Tolerated Dose (MTD) was found to be 1000 mg/kg body. Another study found that giving 2-4 g/kg of whole plant powder orally to both normal and alloxan-induced diabetic rabbits resulted in a significant dose-dependent hypoglycemic effect. levels in both healthy rabbits and animals with diabetes brought on by alloxan. The plant may have a hypoglycemic effect on diabetic rabbits because it gives beta cells vital elements like zinc, manganese, magnesium, calcium, and copper. Moreover, the redox and oxidation states of plasma and other tissues changed when plant seeds were given to rats fed a high dose of fructose. After a 12-hour fast, an intraperitoneal injection of 150 mg/kg body weight of alloxan monohydrate was used to induce diabetes in normoglycemic albino rats. After four days of monitoring blood and urine samples to measure glucose levels, this dose of alloxan caused persistent hyperglycemia. Blood glucose and HbA1c levels were considerably lower in the A. aspera water extract group (500 mg/kg) compared to the control group. An intravenous dose of 60 mg/kg body weight of streptozotocin was used to cause diabetes in adult Wistar rats. This chemical damaged the beta cells, which led to the development of diabetes in three days. An ethanol extract of A. aspera (given at 600 mg/kg) was found to considerably lower blood glucose levels.[6]
For this activity, albino rats were administered the extract intraperitoneally at dosages of 10, 30, and 50 mg. According to the findings, the plant extract may have anti-diuretic properties and improve urine flow.[16]
Six Pheretima posthuma worms, each measuring 8 to 10 cm, were put in a Petri dish containing 30 millilitres of the aqueous extract of stem at concentrations of 2.5, 5, 10, and 20 mg/ml in Tween 20 (1%) solution diluted with normal saline for the initial assessment of antihelmintic activity. The reference standard was albendazole (2.5, 5, 10, 20 mg/ml), while the negative control was normal saline with 1% Tween 20.[17]
CONCLUSION
Achyranthes aspera Linn., traditionally revered in Ayurveda as Apamarga, has demonstrated remarkable potential in bridging classical ethnomedicinal practices with contemporary biomedical science. Detailed studies of its morphology and rich phytochemical profile— encompassing alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids, steroids, ecdysterone, glycosides, and oleanolic acid—have provided strong scientific foundations for its diverse biological activities. Ethnopharmacological evidence aligns with modern pharmacological investigations, substantiating its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, hypolipidemic, anti-diabetic, and wound-healing effects across various experimental models. Moreover, the shift from classical decoctions to modern formulations such as gels, ointments, tablets, and advanced cosmetic applications underscores its adaptability and growing relevance in pharmaceutical and nutraceutical sectors. The use of Achyranthes aspera’s seed mucilage as a biodegradable pharmaceutical excipient further highlights its role in advancing sustainable drug delivery systems, offering an eco-friendly alternative to synthetic polymers. Altogether, these advancements not only validate the traditional uses of Achyranthes aspera but also emphasize its potential as a source for novel, evidence-based therapeutic agents. Future research should prioritize the elucidation of molecular mechanisms, standardization of formulations, and clinical validation to promote its integration into integrated health care and the development of innovative phytopharmaceutical products.
REFERENCES
Prajakta Devkate, Dr. Kiran Wadkar, Dr. Sandeep Patil, Shankar Joshi, Pranav Ghatte, Pranali Bhagate, Integrating Morphological Traits, Phytochemistry, Traditional Uses, and Pharmacological Activities: A Holistic Review of Achyranthes aspera Linn., Int. J. of Pharm. Sci., 2025, Vol 3, Issue 12, 863-872. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17829772
10.5281/zenodo.17829772
